
OF THE 

llNITED 




BY 



^LJXANDERJOHNSTOir 



» *— n 



•m 




Class __i^_Q.^^ 

Book '' 



C^pi^ht W 



„ J 7 3 ^ 



COHYRICIIT DEPOSIT. 



A SHORTER HISTORY 



THE UNITED STATES 



FOR SCHOOLS 



WITH AI^ INTRODUCTORY BISTORT OF THE DISCOVERY 

AND ENGLISH COLONIZATION OF 

NORTH AMERICA 



Wlitfi Plaps, ^lans, nnti Befcrrnce© to Supplementats 
HeaDtns 



ALEXANDER JOHNSTON 

PROFESSOR IN PRINCETON COLLEGE 





NEW YORK 

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
1890 



t.^lS 



Copyright, 18y0, 

BY 

HENRY HOLT & CO. 



Robert Drummoks, 

Electrotyper and Printer, 

New York. 



PUBLISHEKS' NOTE. 



It should be known that with the exception of a few 
trifling verbal modifications not affecting two pages in all, the 
lamented author left the text of this work, after two careful 
revisions, just as it is presented. 

A word regarding the chief characteristics of the book, 
can be said with confidence justified by frequent discussion 
with the author, and may occupy, but not fill, the place of the 
preface he expected to wi'ite. 

Although the work was intentionally adapted for use in 
schools for which the author's larger history might be con- 
sidered too elaborate, it was not made briefer by mere 
omission, and especially, not by the omission of matter of 
great importance. It is not an abridgment of the earlier 
work, but rather a rewriting, Chapter X of the smaller book 
being the only portion not written entirely anew. 

The present work departs from its prototype in many 
respects; the chief of which are: 

I. Advantage is taken of the pupil's natural interest in per- 
sons, to associate events with the leaders most prominent in 
them, and, so far as possible, to give to an idea a human 
representative. It is believed that the emphasis thus placed 
upon the personal element in national life will quicken atten- 
tion and tigliten the grip of memory. 

II. The number of topics is considerably decreased, and 
many of those retained receive fuller treatment, in the belief 
that a text-book is made hard, not by much detail about a 
few things, but by a little about many different things. 



IV PUBLISHERS' NOTE. 

III. The dates to be learned are reduced to a minimum, 
the narrative being kept clear by insistence upon historical 
connection in such a way that the pupil cannot escape the 
impression of cause and effect. 

IV. Each chapter is supplemented with volnme-and-page 
references to pertinent poetry and fiction, as well as to stand- 
ard histories. These references are partly for the pupil and 
partly for the teacher, who, it is believed, will find ample 
material in them not only for the verification and expansion 
of the narrative, but also, if he wishes, for its imaginative 
embellishment. 

V. Special pains have been taken with the maps. A new 
series has been expressly prepared, and it is hoped that no 
statement in the text where such ilhistration would be useful, 
will be found without it. 

All the important features peculiar to the first history have 
been preserved. Some of the more noteworthy of these are : 

I. Smaller relative space (one quarter of the whole, as 
against the one half or more usual in other books) is given to 
colonial times, in order to make room for later events more 
practically important to the future voter. 

II. Most of the stories which usually appear in school 
histories are left to earlier or supplementary work, where 
they belong. 

III. "Events which seem likely to shed light on the re- 
sponsibilities of the citizen to the present and the future " 
are grouped, and " the light given in connection with the 
event." 

IV. An original and extremely useful system of cross- 
references, paragraphing, and topical study is followed. 

To most contemporary readers of this, it is probably 
superfluous to say that it was the author's effort to present 
topics with fairness and conciseness, but to omit no detail 
essential to a proper understanding of the facts and of the in- 
ferences to be drawn from them; and that he adapted his method 
of treatment and language to those qualities of mind with which 
he had become familiar by ten years of devotion to school work. 



PUBLISHERS' NOTE. V 

The publishers feel justified in calling attention to one 
class of testimonials to the author's former work, which is be- 
coming prominent; namely, the imitations — not only in selec- 
tion and arrangement of topics, but in subjects and in style 
of maps, and even in the typographical characteristics which 
he gave such valuable aid in determining. 

For seeing this book through the press and the prepara- 
tion of the maps, acknowledgment is due to Mr. George P. 
Butler of the Lawrenceville School, New Jersey. 

New York, November 8, 1890. 



SUMMARY OF REFERENCES. 



[The names given in italics in this list are the abbreviated titles 
which are used in the Supplementary Reading throughout the book. 
The titles following them are the ordinary library titles of the respect- 
ive book. Thus, if the reference in the Supplementary Reading is 
"A. H. Stephens, ii. 79," this list will show that the librarian must be 
asked for "A Constitutional View of the War between the Slates ; by 
A. H. Stephens." In addition to the list here given of books fre- 
quently cited, some 300 other works are referred to in various portions 
of the Supplementary Reading, but not more than once or twice for 
each. In such cases, the titles have not been abbreviated, except that 
the words "Life of" or "History of" are usually omitted: thus 
" Sparks's Penn" means Sparks's Life of Penn ; and " Greene's Rhode 
Island " means Greene's History of Bhode Island.] 

Adams : Railroads, Their Origin and Problems ; by C. F. Adams, Jr. 

J. Adams : The Works of John Adams. 

Andrews : The South since the War ; by Sidney Andrews. 

Appletoii : Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia. 

Atlantic: The Atlantic Monthly. 

Bancroft : History of the United States ; by George Bancroft (10 vols.). 

Benton : Thirty Years' View ; by Thos. H. Benton. 

Bishop : History of American Manufactures ; by J. L. Bishop. 

Botts : The Great Rebellion ; by John Minor Botts. 

Bryant and Oay : History of the United States ; by W. C. Bryant and 
Sidney H. Gay. 

Buchanan: Mr. Buchanan's Administration ; by James Buchanan. 

Calhoun : The Works of John C. Calhoun. 

Campaigns : Scribner's Campaigns of the Civil War. 

Carey : The Olive Branch ; by M. Carey. 

Carrington : Battles of the Revolution ; by H. B. Carrington. 

Cent. Mag. : The Century Magazine. 

Chalmers : Revolt of the American Colonies ; by George Chalmers. 

Chamberlain: Governor Chamberlain's Administration in South Caro- 
lina ; by Walter Allen. 

Cooper : Naval History of the United States; by J. F. Cooper. 

Creasy : Decisive Battles ; by Sir E. Creasy. 

Curtis : History of the Constitution ; by G T. Curtis. 

Davis : Rise and Fall of the Confederate States ; by Jefferson Davis. 



Vm SUMMARY OF REFERENCES. 

Dawson: Battles of the United States ; bj' H. B. Dawson. 

Dodye: A Bird's Eye View of the Civil War ; by T. A. Dodge, U. S. A 

Doyle: The English Colonics in America ; by J. A. Doyle. 

Drake: The Making of New England ; by S. A. Drake. 

Draper : The Civil War in America ; by John W. Draper. 

Dwighi : Tlie Hartford Convention ; by Theodore Dwight. 

Eighty Tears : Eighty Years' Progress of the United States (1867). 

Electoral Count: Proceedings of Congress and the Electoral Commis- 
sion (1877). 

Eneyc. Brit. : Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

Everett: Orations of Edward Everett. 

Franklin : The Works of Benjamin Franklin (1840). 

Frothingham : The Rise of the Republic ; by Richard Frothingham. 

Oillet: Democracy in the United States ; by R. H. Gillet. 

Gibson: A Political Crime; by A. M. Gibson. 

Oilman : History of the American People ; b}^ Arthur Oilman. 

Grant : Personal Memoirs of Gen. U. S. Grant. 

Greeley : The American Conflict ; by Horace Greeley. 

Green's Larger Hist. : A Larger History of the English People ; by 
John Richard Green. 

Greene : Historical View of the American Revolution ; by G. W. 
Greene. 

Hadley : Railroad Transportation ; by Arthur T. Hadley. 

Harper's Mag. : Harper's Magazine. 

Higginson : Larger History of the United States ; by T. W. Higginsou. 

Hildreth : History of the United States ; by Richard Ilildreth. 

Hudson: Journalism in America ; by Frederick Hudson. 

Jefferson : Tlie Writings of Thomas Jefferson (4 vols.). 

Johnson: Johnson's Cyclopaedia. 

Johnston : History of American Politics ; by Alexander Johnston. 

J. E. Johnston : Narrative of Military Operations ; by Gen. J. E. John- 
ston. 

TMmh : History of the City of New York ; by M. J. Lamb. 

Lauglilin: Elements of Political Economy ; by J. L. Laughlin. 

Lippincott : Lippincott's Magazine. 

Livermore : The War with Mexico Reviewed ; by A. A. Livermore. 

Jjodge: Short History of the English Colonies in America; by H. C. 
Lodge. 

Lossing's Rev. : Field-Book of the Revolution ; by B. J. Lossing. 

Txist Cause : The Lost Cause ; by E. A. Pollard. 

layman : Diplomacy of tiie United States ; by T. Lyman. 

McClellan: McClellan's Own Story; by Gen. G. B McClellan. 

McMaster : History of the People of the United States ; by J. B. Mc- 
Master. 



8UMMABY OF REFERENCES. IX 

McPherson : Political History of the Rebellion ; by Edward McPber- 

son. 
McPherson's Rec. : History of the Reconstruction ; by Edward McPher- 
son. 
Mansfield: History of the Mexican War; by E. D. Mansfield. 
Moore's Diary : Diary of the Revolution ; by Frank Moore. 
N. A. Rev : North American Review. 

Niles : Principles and Acts of the Revolution ; by H. Niles. 
Palfrey : History of New England ; by J. G. Palfrey. 
Parker : Historic Americans ; by Theodore Parker. 
Perry: Political Economy; by A. L. Perry. 
Pitkin : History of the United Slates ; by T. Pitkin. 
Preston : Documents Illustrative of American History ; by H. W. 

Preston. 
Randall : Life of Thomas Jefferson ; by H. S. Randall. 
Reader's Handbook : Handbook of the American Revolution ; by J. 

Winsor. 
Record: Rebellion Record ; by Frank Moore. 

RicJiardson : History of American Literature ; by C. F. Richardson. 
Ridpath : A Popular History of tbe United States ; by J. C. Ridpath. 
Roberts : History of New York ; by E. S. Roberts. 
Roosevelt : Naval History of the War of 1812 ; by Theodore Roosevelt. 
Schouler: History of the United States ; by James Schouler. 
Scott: Autobiography of Gen. Win field Scott. 
Sherman : Memoirs of Gen. W. T. Sberman. 
Spencer : History of the United States ; by J. A. Spencer. 
Spofford: Spofford's American Almanac. 
A. H. Stephens : Constitutional View of the War between the States ; 

by A. H. Stephens. 
Sumner : The Works of Charles Sumner. 

Swinton : Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac ; by W. Swinton. 
Taussig : History of the Present Tariff ; by F. W. Taussig. 
Trescot : Diplomacy of the Revolution ; by W. H. Trescot. 
Trib. Aim. : Tribune Almanac. 

Tucker : History of the United States ; by George Tucker. 
Von Hoist : Constitutional History of the United States (translation) ; 

by H. von Hoist. 
Watson : Annals of Philadelphia ; by J. F. Watson. 
Webster : The Works of Daniel Webster. 
Williams : History of the Negro Race ; by G. W. Williams. 
Wilson : Rise and Fall of the Slave Power ; by Henry Wilson. 
Winsor : Narrative and Critical History of the United States : by J 

Winsor. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 
DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. 



PAGE 

Period I. — Discovery. .... = , » 1 

Period II. — Colonization ,c » 7 

Period III. — English Colonization to 1748. . ..,,.» . ......:.... 13 

Massachusetts Bay Colony » , » ........ 17 

New Hampshire , .- , 33 

Connecticut = . . . . „ .. = .o ,.,.,,.... . 22 

Rhode Island ■....., ,...»....,.,,. 24 

Vermont « = , ........ o . o.. . 26 

New England in general. .,. ........ o , = 26 

Virginia , . ., . , . . . . . . . « ...<..>.,...., 30 

Maryland.,.. .., .. 34 

North Carolina. ...... .o. o ».=. . 36 

South Carolina. . o o = = .......,. <= 38 

Georgia. ..... 39 

The Southern Colonies in general. , , . . , 39 

New York.. ..,,.., 42 

New Jersey 46 

Pennsylvania , , . . , 47 

Delaware . . 49 

The Colonies in general 49 

Period IV.— Colonial History, 1750-63 56 

French Settlement. 56 

French and Indian War. , 60 

Results of the War 63 

Period V. — Colonial Resistance, 1763-75 65 

Taxation without Representation 65 

Lexington and Concord. 69 

xi 



Xll CONTENTS. 

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
Chapter I.— The Revolution: 1775-81. 

PAGE 

The Rise of the Republic 73 

Events iu New Euglaud 76 

Events iu Canada 77 

Events in England and on the Coast 78 

Independence .' 79 

Events iu the Middle States, 1776-8 80 

Buigoyue's Expedition, 1777 85 

Aid'from Fiance, 1778 87 

Events in the North after 1778 89 

Events on the Sea 92 

Events in the South, 1778-81 93 

Yorktown, 1781.... 98 

Peace. 1783 99 

Chapter II.— The Confederation : 1781-9. 

Failure of the Confederation 104 

The Ordinance of 1787 105 

Formation of the Constitution 107 

Chapter III. — The Establishment op National Government : 

1789-1801. 

State of the Country, 1789 , 110 

Washingtou's Administrations, 1789-1797 112 

John Adams's Administration, 1797-1801 119 

Chapter IV.— The Nation recognized Abroad and at Home : 

1801-1829. 

Jefiferson's Administrations, 1801-9 125 

Madison's Administrations, 1809-17 131 

Monroe's Administrations, 1817-25. 142 

John Quincy Adams's Administration, 1825-9 149 

Cn/jTvaii v.— The Introduction of Railroads: 1829-49. 

Jackson's Administrations, 1829-37 153 

Van Bureii's Administration, 1837-41 164 

Harrison's and Tyler's Admfinistratious, 1841-5 168 

Polk's Administration, 1845-9 172 

Chapter VI.— Sectional Division: 1849-61. 

Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations, 1849-53 183 

Pierce's Administration, 1853-7 186 

Buchanan's Administration, lb57-61 191 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

Chapter VII.— The Civil War : 1861-5. 

PAGE 

Lincoln's Administration, 1861-5 201 

Eveutsof 1863 208 

In the West 208 

On the Coast 212 

In the East 214 

Events of 1863 220 

In the East 220 

In the West 222 

Internal Affairs 226 

Events of 1864 228 

In the East 229 

In the West 231 

On the Coast 234 

On the Sea 236 

Internal Affairs 23? 

Events of 1865 238 

Conclusion of the War 238 

Military Summary of the War 241 

Death of President Lincoln 244 

Chapter VIII. — Reconstruction : 1865-77. 

Johnson's Administration, 1865-9 248 

Grant's Administrations, 1869-77 253 

Chapter IX.— Recent Development : 1877-88. 

Hayes's Administration, 1877-81 261 

Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations, 1881-5 264 

Cleveland's Administration, 1885-9 268 

Chapter X. — Past, Present, and Future. 

General Summary 273 

State of the Country 274 

Causes of Growth 279 

The Future 282 

Chapter XI.— The Constitution of the United States. 284 

Appendix I. — The Declaration of Independence 295 

Appendix II. — The Constitution of the United States 299 

Appendix III.— Formation of States 313 

Appendix IV. — Growth of the States 314 

Appendix V. — Growth of the Cities 316 

Appendix VI.— Washington's Farewell Address (Extracts) . . 317 
Pronouncing Index 319 



NOTE ON THE MAPS. 



In the historical maps, the colors show the political divisions 
at the time the map refers to ; but to aid in iinpressiug these on 
the memory, other political divisions, and prominent facts that 
may not strictly belong to the time, are sometimes indicated in 
black. 



xiv 



MAPS. 



See note on opposite page. 



COLORED. 

FACING PAGE 

The United States in 1890. . . . Frontispiece. 

European Provinces, 1655, . . . . . .13 

British Cessions to 1733, . . . . .49 

The United States at the Peace of 1783, . . .99 

The United States, showing Acquisition of Territory, . 126 

The United States in 1830, . . . . .156 

The Areas op Secession, ..... 198 



UNOOLORED. 



COLUATBUS'S VoYAUE, . 

De Soto's Expedition, 
Atlantic Discoveries, 
Atlantic Settlements, 
Massachusetts Bay Colony. 
Connecticut Colony, 
Rhode Island Colony, 
Early French Wars, 
Virginia Colony, 
Maryland, 
Carolina, 

The Middle Colonies, 
French Forts, 



PAGE 

3 
5 
6 

8 
19 
23 
25 
28 
S2 
34 
36 
43 
58 



XVI 



MAPS. 



The French War, .... 

Lexington and Concord, 

Around Boston, .... 

The Campaign in the Middle States, . 

Capture and Evacuation of Philadelphia, 

Burgoyne's Expedition, 

The Revolution in the Southern States, 

Surrender at Yorktown, . 

Movements of British Troops by Land and Sea, 

Barbary States, .... 

War of 1812; Lake Region, 

Niagara Frontier, .... 

Attack on Washington, 

Expedition against New Orleans, 

War with Mexico, .... 

Fort Sumter and Charleston Harbor, 

Washington and Vicinity, . 

Mill Spring to Shiloh, 

Bragg's Raid, .... 

Hampton Roads, .... 

The Lower Mississippi, 

Peninsular Campaign, 

Seven Days' Battle, 

First Invasion of the North, 

Second Invasion of the North, . 

The Vicksburgh Campaign, 

Murfreesboro to Chattanooga, . 

The Wilderness Battles, . 

From Chattanooga to Atlanta, . 

Sherman's March to Savannah, . 

On the Coast, .... 

Sherman's March Northward, 

Petersburgh and Appomattox, . 



PAQB 

, 59 

. 70 

, 76 

81 

, 84 

, 86 

94 

99 

, 100 

126 

133 

134 

135 

138 

177 

202 

205 

209 

210 

212 

213 

, 215 

, 217 

218 

. 221 

223 

, 224 

, 229 

. 231 

. 233 

. 235 

. 239 

. 240 



INTRODUCTORY. 



DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. 



PERIOD L— DISCOVERY. 

(1492-1583.) 

1. The White Race. — It is not often realized by young 
people that of the many thousand years in which the white 
race has led the world, it has known America only three 
hundred years and has really been active on American soil 
only about two hundred. To the labors of the white race are 
mainly due the development of religion, science, art, law, and 
politics, the use of steam, air, electricity, and other natural 
forces in machinery, the stopping of the old brutal customs 
of war, of the torture of prisoners, and of the imprisonment 
of persons who cannot pay their debts; and while that race 
has been at work in these matters for many thousands of 
years, probably the most important of these developments 
have been accomplished during the two hundred years in 
which the race has added America to its field of labor, and a 
startling portion of them, relatively considered, has been 
accomplished on American soil. 

2. The Discovery of America. — One of the greatest events 
in the history of the white race, and of the world, was the 
discovery of America. It opened a vast new continent, far 
larger than Europe, where the white race could increase in 
numbers and power. The colonization of this continent — that 
is, its settlement by parties of whites — has stirred up other 
men of that race to settle other parts of the world, until this 
race has already become the leading race of the earth, and will 
soon be the most numerous. So many of the great events 
which have since happened may be traced back to the dis- 
covery of America, that men have come to consider this the 
greatest event of modern times (§ 695). 



2 DISCOVERT. 

3. The Nations of Europe. — At the time of the discovery of 
America, the white race of Europe was, as now, divided into 
different nations; but these nations liad not very much to do 
with one another, except in the wars which broke out among 
them from time to time. Men lived and died within a few 
miles of their native villages, because generally it was not safe 
to go much farther away. Printing had lately been invented; 
but books were still scarce and dear, and most men did not 
care much about foreign countries, even when described in 
books. The nations along the Atlantic coast, England, Hol- 
land, France, Spain, and Portugal, had ships, though they 
were small ones, and did most of what little commerce was 
done. Just about this time they had begun to use the mar- 
iner's compass and other instruments of navigation, which 
enabled them to make longer voyages, out of sight of land; 
and they had begun to use gunpowder, which gave them a 
great advantage over the bows and arrows of savages. 

4. Columbus. — It is not true that all men before Columbus 
believed that the earth was flat. Most men thought and 
cared little whether the earth was round or flat; but there 
were books, even tlien, which gave the reasons for the belief 
that the earth was round.* Christopher Columbus, a native 
of Genoa in Italy, and a sailor, was the first to try to prove 
that the earth was round, by sailing westward from Europe. 
Portuguese sailors had already explored the west coast of 
Africa, had reached the Cape of Good Hope (1480), and had 
thus found a way to the profitable trade with the East Indies. 
It should not be forgotten that this trade was of very great 
importance, and that it was in the hope of finding a still 
shorter way to them that Columbus started to sail directly west- 
ward around the world. Wealth was far less abundant then 
than now; Columbus hud not the money to fit out the neces- 
sary ships himself; and the kings and queens to whom for 
many weary years he applied for help were too busy with 
other things to attend to him. Finally, Ferdinand and Isa- 

* It is believed by many that the "Northmen" (the people of Norway) dis- 
covered America by way of Iceland and Greenland, five hundred years before Co- 
lumbus. 



DISCOVERT. 3 

bella, King and Queen of Spain, furnished him with three 
small ships, and he sailed out from Palos [^i)ah'-los\ in Spain, 
to change the history of the world. 

5. Columbus's First Voyage. — The three ships went first to 
the Canary Isles, and thence due west, on a track which no 
ship liad evei sailed before. The ignorant sailors grew fright- 
ened. When Columbus taught 
them that the earth was round, 
they became still more terrified 




500 1000 2000 

Columbus's Voyage. 

at the thought that they were really sailing down hill and 
could never get back again. By one means and another he 
induced them to go forward, until after more than two 
months' sailing, they saw land, Oct. 12, 1492. It was one of 
the Bahama Islands, to which Columbus gave the name of 
San Salvador, Sailing slowly south and southeast, he ex- 
plored some of the islands of the West Indies; then his little 
fleet spread its sails and returned to Europe, bearing natives 
and new plants as proofs that a new world had been dis- 
covered. 

6. America. — Columbus thought the earth to be about 
one third as large as we know it to be. He had no thought 
of a new world, but lived and died in the belief that he had 
reached the rich kingdoms of the East Indies. For this 
reason, he made no effort to have the new continent named 
after himself; tlie natives were called Indians*; and the islands 



* Another race, the "mound-builders," had inhabited the country before the 
Indians : they left certain curious mounds in the Mississippi Valley, and no other 



4 DISCOVERT. 

which he found on his first voyage are still known as the 
West Indies. He never landed on the Xorth American con- 
tinent, though he visited the mainland of South America on 
his third voyage.* The whole continent was called America, 
from Amerigo Vespucci \yes-poot'-che\ (in Latin, Americiis 
Vespiicins), a mercliant and traveller of Florence, who was 
the first to describe it as a separate continent. 

7. Spanish America. — Columbus's discovery caused a great 
excitement in Europe, as the printing-press scattered the 
news of it. Spanish vessels, with soldiers and sailors, began 
at once to sail westward across the Atlantic, making wonder- 
ful conquests in Mexico and Peru. All South America and 
the southern part of North America was soon Spanish. Ponce 
de Leon discovered the coast of what is now eastern Florida, 
giving it this name because he had discovered it on Easter Sun- 
day, called in Spanish Pascua Florida. Spanish discoveries 
went as far north as the coast of what is now South Carolina, 
but were mostly confined to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico.f 
Some of the Spanish governors of Mexico sent expeditions 
northward into what is now New Mexico and California, but 
these accomplished little. The Pacific coast of North America 
was explored by Drake, an English sailor; but this part of the 
continent had very few inhabitants while it was a part of 
Spanish America and until it became a part of the United 
States (§451). 

8. De Soto's Expedition. — De Soto, the Spanish governor 
of Cuba, landed in Florida (1539) with 900 men, seeking to 



record of their existence. The remnants of the Indian tribes are now mostly 
beyond theMi?sissippi River, cared for by the Government. The strongest of their 
tribes were the Five Nations (afterwards the Six Nations; see § 97), in central 
New York, and the southern fribes, the Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and 
others. 

* Columbus made four voyages in all. He was ungratefully treated by the king 
to whom he " had given a new world," but who feared lest Columbus should make 
himself king of it. On one occasion he was even sent home in chains by one of 
Ferdinand's officials. 

+ Florida remained Spanish for a long time. The United States purchased it in 
1819 (§ 3.")5), and the old Spanish town of Saint Augustine (founded in 15t)5) became 
the oldest tow-n in the United States, the Spanish town of Santa F6 in New Mexico 
(founded in 1582) being the next oldest. 



DI8G0VEB7. 

find and conquer some rich Indian kingdom. After marching 
for three years through the present States of Georgia, Alabama, 
Mississippi, and Arkansas, and finding only savages in a 
wilderness, he died, 




60 100 200 300 400 

Dk Soto's Expedition. 



worn out by toil and 
exposure. His men 
succeeded in reach- 
ing Mexico. An im- 
portant result of the 
expedition was the 
discovery of the 
noble river, Missis- 
sippi, which De Soto 
crossed near the 
southern boundary 
of Tennessee. His 
death took place on 
the banks of the 
great river, and he was buried in its waters. The upper part 
of the river, however, remained unknown until it was dis- 
covered by French explorers from Canada (§ 133). 

9. The Portuguese Bargain.- — Portuguese sailors had already 
made discoveries on the coast of Africa and in the East 
Indies (§ 4). Spain and Portugal agreed (1493) that Spain 
was not to interfere with Portugal in these discoveries, and 
that Portugal was not to interfere with Spain in America. 
Portugal therefore took hardly any part in American dis- 
covery. Holland was then subject to Spain, and attempted 
no settlements until it had become an independent country 
(§31). 

10. British America.* — The most important events to the 
future people of the United States, next to Columbus's dis- 
covery, were the voyages of the Cabots, for they gave England 
a claim to the central part of North America. John Cabot, 
a merchant of Venice, Italy, then living in Bristol, England, 



* This name is now confined to that part of North America which was left to 
Great Britain when the United States became an independent nation (§ 236). 



6 



DISCOVERY. 



and his son, Sebastian Cabot 
fitted out a ship, the Matth 
and discovered Nortli Amei 
at Cape Breton Island, June 
1497. They called it Pri 
Vista ("first 
sight")- The next 
year, Sebastian 
Cabot explored the 
whole Atlantic 
coast from Cape 
Breton to Albe- 
marle Sound, and 
claimed it for Eng- 
land. No attempt 
was made to settle 
the country for 
many years, but 
English sailors 
continued to fol- 
low the path of the 
Cabots across the 




100 200 400 600 

Atlantic Discoveries. 



northern Atlantic, in 
order to share in the 
Newfoundland fisher- 
ies. 

11. French America. 
— French discoveries, 
like those of Spain, 
had very little to do 
future his- 
the United 
The New- 
foundland fisheries at- 
ti-actod French sailors 
also across the Atlan- 
and one of them 
discovered t h c 
Gulf of St. I.aw- 
rence. Car tier 
[kar'-fe-d] dis- 
covered the great 
river St. Law- 
rence (1534); and 
this drew the 
French off in that 



BAELT SETTLEMENT. 7 

direction, so that whatever discoveries they made afterwards 
were made in Canada (§ 131). 

12. Chronological Summary. — The discoveries of Spain, 
England, and France have been given separately. They may 
be collected, as follows: 

(Sp., Spanish; E., English; F., French.) 

1492— Columbus (Sp.): West Indies §5 

1497— The Cabots (E.): Cape Breton Island 10 

1498 — Sebastian Cabot (E.): Cape Breton Island to Albemarle Sound. 10 

1513— Pouce de Leon (Sp.): Florida 7 

1534— Cartier (F.): lliver St. Lawrence 11 

1539-1541— De Soto (Sp.): Mississippi River and Southern States 8 

1565— Founding of St. Augustine (Sp.) 7 

1579— Dralie (E.): Pacitic Coast 7 

1582— Founding of Santa Fe (Sp.) 7 

[Supplementary Reading.— Details as to the early voyages will be 
found in Irviug's Life of Columbus; Prescott's Ferdinand and Lsabella, 
Conquest of Mexico, and Conquest of Peru; Hildreth. i. ; Helps's 
Spanish Conquest in America, i. ; Bancroft, i. ; Bryant and Gay, i.; Boyle, 
i. As to still earlier voyages of the Northmen, see Anderson's Amer- 
ica Not Bucovered by Columbus. Novels: Reade's Cloister and the 
Hearth (for the social condition of Europe); Cooper's Mercedes of 
Castile; Simms's Vasconselos (for De Soto).] 



PERIOB IL —COLONIZA TION. 
French, English, Dutch, and Swedish Claims. 

(1540—1638.) 

13. French Failures. — The French had most to do with 
what is now Canada. Cartier (§ 11) made a settlement at 
Quebec (1540), but gave it up after the second winter. French 
vessels still sailed up the St. Lawrence River from time to 
time, but for sixty years there was no further attempt to make 
a settlement here. It seemed, at one time, that the French 
would turn to the southern Atlantic coast. Tiiey made a 
settlement at Port Royal (1562), but it was starved out, and 
the colonists went home. Another French settlement was 
made near St. Augustine (1564), but the Spaniards attacked 
and destroyed it. Another French expedition took full re- 
jenge on the Spaniards, but there was no further attempt to 
continue the French settlement. 



8 



EARLY SETTLEMENT. 



14. Canada. — It was not iintil more than a hundred years 
after Columbus's discoveiy tliat two Frenchmen, De Monts 
and Chaniplain, made successful settlements in America. De 
Monts settled iu Acadia, the French name for Nova Scotia 
(l(i05), and Champlain at Quebec, three years afterward. 
Other Frenchmen soon settled along the St. Lawrence Kiver. 




and took possession 

of what is now the 

Dominion of Canada. 

: remained a French 

possession until 1763 

40), and the descend- 

3f the original settlers 

often called French 

Failures. — For nearly 
a century after Columbus's discovery, 
the English did little in support of the 
claims which the Cabots had made for 
them, except that an English captain, 
Martin Frobisher, searching for gold, made an unsuccess- 
ful attempt to found a settlement in the cold and barren 
region called Labrador. After a time, England and Spain 
drifted into war; and while Elizabeth was Queen of Eng- 
land, English sailors like Drake (§ 7) Avere fighting the 



EARL Y SETTLEMENT. 9 

Spaniards on every sea. Most of these were little better than 
pirates. One brave and pious gentleman, Sir Humphrey Gil- 
bert, saw that the American fisheries had more real value than 
any war could have ; and he undertook to make a settlement 
in Newfoundland. His first attempt (1578) was a failure; 
but he made another attempt, with five ships, five years 
afterward. His men were ungovernable, and he was com- 
pelled to return, taking for himself the smallest and weakest 
vessel of the five. A violent storm arose ; Gilbert was be- 
sought to go on board of a larger vessel; but he refused to desert 
his men, saying manfully, "' We are as near heaven by sea as 
by land." So they left the Admiral, sitting at the stern of 
his vessel, " reading a book." During the night, the watchers 
on the other ships suddenly saw the lights of his vessel go 
out, and Sir Humphrey Gilbert disappeared from history. 

16. Raleigh. — Brave men were plenty in England, and 
Gilbert's half-brother. Sir Walter Ealeigh, next took up the 
work. Wonderful stories are told of Raleigh, of his wit, 
his learning, his never-failing courtesy, which, made friends 
for him everywhere; of the liking which Elizabeth had for 
him; of the dislike which her successor, King James I., felt 
for him; of the manliness which he showed through thirteen 
years of causeless imprisonment, and at his final execution. 
The common story is that he introduced into England, 
from the American Indians, the practice of smoking tobacco ; 
and that one of his servants, seeing him smoking and think- 
ing him on fire, threw a pitcher of beer on him to put out the 
fire; but it is quite certain that tobacco was used in England 
before Ealeigh's time. He has, however, a better claim to our 
remembrance. He was the father of English colonization in 
America. He never landed in North America ; but he made 
every effort to make settlements there ; he talked and wrote 
of the importance of such settlements ; and he was the man 
who did most to set Englishmen thinking of it, and to pre- 
pare the way for final colonization.* 

* In spite of Raleigh's failures, his colony of Virginia was a success (§ 67), before 
the year of his execution (1618). 



10 EARLY SETTLEMENT. 

17. Raleigh's Colonies. — The colonies which Ealeigh sent 
out landed on the coast of the present State of North Carolina.* 
Two of his vessels found a place for a colony on Eoanoke 
Island (1584). Raleigh named the whole coast Virginia, in 
honor of Queen Elizabeth, who was unmarried and was fond of 
being called the " Virgin Queen," and the name is still given 
to a part of it, the present State of Virginia. A colon}- Avas 
sent out the next year, but careful preparation had not been 
made, and the colony was starved out in a year. Another 
colony was sent out under White (1587). It began well. 
White's granddaughter, Virginia Dare, the first child of 
English parents born within the present limits of the United 
States, was so named because the colonists believed that 
tlie great colony of Virginia had now been begun. Xo one 
knows what calamity happened ; but when the colony was 
searched for three years afterward, it had disappeared, and 
no trace of the hundred or more persons who perished has 
ever been found, f IMiis failure exhausted Raleigh's money 
for the time. 

18. Gosnold and Pring. — For nearly twenty years, attempts 
at a settlement ceased ; but English fishing and trading ves- 
sels were more often seen along the American coast, and their 
accounts of the new country kept alive the English desire for 
American settlements. Bartholomew Gosnold found a new 
route across the Atlantic, by the Azores [a-zorz''\ Islands, 
much shorter than that by way of the West Indies (1G02). He 
was in search of sassafras ; but he built a fort at what is noAV 
Buzzard's Bay, in Massachusetts, and attempted to make a 
settlement. At the last moment, the men became friglitened 
at the thought of being left in a strange land, and insisted on 
returning with him. jNIartin Pring, also in search of sassa- 
fras, examined and described the coast of New England; and 
no doubt there were many others, whose voA'ages have been 
quite forgotten. 

* For this reason, tlie capital city of North Carolina has been named 
Raleigh. 

t The tradition of the Indians was that the colonists, hungry and in despair, 
joined a neighboring Indian tribe. 



EARLY SETTLEMENT. 11 

19. The Two Companies. — Under King James I. two com- 
panies were formed (1606) for tlie purpose of making settle- 
ments in America. To tlie London Company the king 
granted the coast of North America from latitude 34° to lati- 
tude 38°; that is, from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the 
Eappahannock River. To the Plymouth Company he gave 
the coast from latitude 41° to latitude 45°; that is, from the 
mouth of the Hudson River to the eastern point of Maine. The 
coast between the Rappahannock and the Hudson was granted 
to both companies ; but neither was to fix a colony within a 
hundred miles of any colony already planted by the other.* 

20. The English Claim. — The formation of these two com- 
panies was the first real sign that Englishmen meant to en- 
force the claim to central North America which the Cabots 
had made more than a hundred years before (§ 10). To avoid 
the Spaniards to the south and the French to the north, the 
king had granted only the central portion of the continent ; 
and this circumstance has helped to give the United States 
their present boundaries. The settlements planted by the new 
companies were better prepared than Raleigh's colonies, and 
were able to protect themselves from the beginning. We may 
thus date the beginning of successful English settlement in 
North America at the London Company's first settlement at 
Jamestown (1607) (see § 24). 

21. The Dutch Claim. — Holland had rebelled against Spain 
(§ 9) about the time of the first English failures, and had be- 
come a strong naval power. Hendrik (Henry) Hudson, an 
Englishman in the Dutch service, discovered the mouth of 
the Hudson River (1609), and explored the coast more closely 
than other voyagers had done. Dutch traders at once sent 
vessels to Manhattan Island (now New York City), to trade 
with the Indians ; and Holland granted the territory from 
Delaware Bay to the Connecticut River to the Dutch West 

* In 1609 the London Company's grant was enlarged to extend 200 miles north 
and south of Pt Comfort (34° to 40°), and westward to the Pacific Ocean. In 1620 
the Plymouth Company was reorganized as the Council of Plymouth, and its grant 
was enlarged to extend fiom Philadelphia to the northern point of Nova Scotia 
C40-48°) and westward to the Pacific. 



12 EARLY SETTLEMENT. 

India Company (1621). Two years afterward, this company 
established the city of New Amsterdam (now New York), and 
called the whole territory New Netherlands. For the next 
forty years this continued to be a Dutch colony, thrust in be- 
tween the English colonies to the north and to the south of it. 
It was conquered by the English in 1664 (§ 102). 

22. The Swedish Claim. — Sweden had no claims by discov- 
ery ; but Peter Minuit, who had been a Dutch governor of 
New Netherlands, but who had gone into the Swedish service, 
brought over a Swedish colony and settled it in the present 
State of Delaware (1638). Its chief town was Christina, near 
the present city of Wilmington. The Dutch took this terri- 
tory from the Swedes (1655); and the English finally took it 
from the Dutch, with the rest of New Netherlands. It was 
afterwards transferred to Penn (§ 113). 

23. Chronological Summary. — All these steps are very 
important to our history, for one reason why our own 
country occupies its present territory is because at the be- 
ginning a single people, the English, got control of it. Spain 
had chosen the territory to the south, and France the terri- 
tory to the north ; Holland and Sweden tried to settle the 
territory between, but were not strong enough to resist 
England in the struggle for it ; and thus the whole Atlantic 
coast, from Flo/ida to Nova Scotia, became English. Tiie 
dates of the more important steps in the settlements are as 
follows : 

(Sp., Spanish; E., English; F., French; D., Dutch; Sw., Swedish.) 

Canada. 

1540-Cartier (F.): Quebec (failure) § 13 

1576— Frobisber (E.): Labrador (failure) 15 

1578 aud 15S3— Gilbert (E.): Ncwfouudlaud (failure) 15 

16(15— De JMonts (F.) : Acadia, or Nova Scotia (success) 14 

1608— Cbaniplaiu _(F.) : Quebec (success) 14 

(Here begins the French colouizaliou of Canada, § 14.) 

The United States. 

1562— South Carolina (F.) : Port Royal (failure) 13 

1564 — Florida (F.) : Near St. August ine (failure) 13 

1565— Florida (Sp. ) : St. Augustine (success) 7 

1582— New Mexico (Sp.) : Santa Fe (success) 7 

1585— North Carolina (E.) : Roanoke Island (failure) 17 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 13 

1587— North Carolina (E.) : Roanoke Island (failure) 17 

1603— Massachusetts (E.) : Buzzard's Bay (failure) 18 

1607 — Virdnia (E ) : Jamestown (success) 20 

(Here begins the English colonization of the United States.) 

1609— New York (D.) : Hudson's discovery 31 

162:^— New York (D.) : Dutch settlement (became English in 1664). 21 
1638 — Delaware (Sw.) : Swedish settlement (became English in 

1 664) 21 

[Supplementary Beading: — (§ 13) Bancroft, i. 33, 61; Hildrelh. i. 46, 
71; Bryant and Gay, i. 174 ; Doyle, i. 89. (§ 14) Bancroft, i. 25 ; Bryant 
and Gay, i. 313 ; Doyle, i. 146 ; VsivX^m'An'a Pioneers of France, 315. (§ 15) 
Bancroft, i. 86 ; Hildreth, i. 78 ; Bryant and Gay, i. 325 ; Doyle, i. 52 ; 
Edgar's Sea Kings. (§ 16) Bancroft, i. 91 ; Doyle, i. 56 ; Bryant and Gay, 
i. 240 ; Encyclopedia Britannica, art. Raleigh. (§ 17) Bancroft, i. 95-108 ; 
Hildreth, i. 80 ; Bryant and Gay, i. 341; Doyle, i. 60. (§18) Bancroft, i. 
111-113 ; Hildreth, i. 90 ; Bryant and Gay. i. 262 ; Doyle, i. 105. (§ 19)^ 
Bancroft, i. 120; Hildreth, i. 99 ; Doyle, i. 109 ; the charter is in Pres- 
ton, i. (§ 21) Bancroft, ii. 264 ; Hildreth, i. 97 ; Bryant and Gay, i. 339 ; 
Roberts's New York, 19 ; Randall's New Yoi-k, 15. (§ 22) Bancroft, ii. 
286; Hildreth, i. 413; Bryant and Gay, i. 465; NincenVs Delaware.~\ 



PERIOD III.— ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 

(1606-1748.) 

24. Jamestown. — The two companies (§ 19) began the work 
of settlement at once. The Plymouth Company's settlement, 
near the month of Kennebec River, in Maine, was a fail- 
ure, and that company made no further settlements on its 
own account. The London Company's attempt was more 
successful. Captain Christopher Newport was sent out, with 
one hundred and five emigrants, to settle at Roanoke Island. 
A storm drove him out of his course and into Chesapeake 
Bay; he discovered the James River, which he named in honor 
of James I. ; and about fifty miles from its mouth, on the 
northern bank of the river, he planted the settlement of 
Jamestown, May 13, 1607. This was the first successful Eng- 
lish settlement and the beginning of the colony of Virginia 
(§ 67). * 

25. Division of tlie Grants. — The two companies did not 
last very long. The king took away the charter of the Lon- 
don Company, Avhich he claimed was not doing its work faith- 

* Jamestown has since been destroyed (§ 73). 



14 ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 

fully (1624). From this time, ;ill the territory of the London 
Company, which meanwhile had been extended northward to 
what is now the boundary between Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania and southwurd to the Spanisli domains, belonged to the 
king, wlio divided it up into new colonies as he pleased. The 
Plymouth Company was also broken up (1G20), and a new 
one, the Council of Plymouth, was formed in its place. 
Fifteen years later, this company also gave up its charter. 
But, before doing so, it had pretty well divided \\\) its terri- 
tory among various colonies, so that the king never was able 
to form as many colonies of his own in the north as in the 
south. 

26. The Southern Colonies. — Successive kings, it will be 
found, formed five colonies out of the territory of the London 
Company. (1) Virginia was that which was left of the Lon- 
don Company's grant after the following colonies were formed. 
(2) Charles I. (1632) formed the new colony of Muriihind 
out of the northeastern part of the original '' Virginia" 
(§ 75). (3) Charles IL (16G5) took off the southern part of 
" Virginia," the present State of North Carolina, and claim- 
ing the whole coast as far south as Florida, added it to what 
he had taken from " Virginia," and called the whole Caralina. 
Carolina thus covered the present States of North Carolina, 
Soutli Carolina, and Georgia, with the States west of them, 
as far as the Mississippi River {^ 80). (4) Carolina was di- 
vided into Korfh Carolina and Soiifk Carolina (1729) (§ 82). 
(5) The southern part of South Carolina was formed into the 
new colony of Georgia (1732) (§ 91). The five southern 
colonies were thus Virginia, Maryland, Xorth Carolina, South 
Carolina, and Georgia. f 

27. The New England Colonies. — The Plymouth Company's 
territory has had the ^anie New England ever since 1614, 
when Captain John Smith (§ 68) visited and named the 



t All these colonies had " roj-al " names: Virginia from Elizabeth (§ 17); Mary- 
land, from Henrietta Maria, Cliarles II. 's queen; Carolina, from Charles II. (Latin, 
Caroliis); and Georgia from George II. Florida was not an English colony until 
1763 (§ 146), nor a part of the United States imtil 1819 (§ 355). 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 15 

coast. There were originally seven colonies formed from it : 
Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, New Haven, 
Providence, Ehode Island, and New Hampshire. Plymouth 
was afterwards united with Massachusetts Bay; New Haven 
with Connecticut; and Providence with Ehode Island. These 
unions left four New England colonies: Massachusetts (§ 34), 
New Hampshire (§ 45), Connecticut (§ 46), and Rhode Island 
(§ 52).* 

28. The Middle Colonies. — The coast between Maryland 
and Connecticut was not settled by either company, but was 
settled by the Dutch (§ 31). Afterwards it was taken from 
the Dutch by the English (1664), Four colonies were formed 
from it. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. 

29. Colonial Governments. — It was necessary that these 
colonies should have governments, and their forms may be 
roughly divided into three classes : (1) The Charier Colonies 
were Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. These 
had ''charters" from the king, written documents which 
gave the colonists the power to elect their own officers and 
govern themselves. (2) The Proprietary Colo nies were Miirj- 
land, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. These had been granted 
by the king to proprietors or owners, who formed govern- 
ments in them. They also had charters, like the charter colo- 
nies, but they were given to the colonists by the proprietors, 
not by the king. The proprietors appointed the governors; 
but, in almost every other respect, the colonists governed 
themselves. (3) The Royal Colonies were the remaining 
seven — New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. These had no 
charters, and their governors were appointed by the king. 
Most of them had been proj)rietary colonies, but had been 
given back to the king by the proprietors. As royal colonies, 
they kept their former governments, and thus governed them- 
selves in most respects ; but they could not be as certain as 
the charter and proprietary colonies of retaining that privi- 
lege. 

* Maine was part of Massachusetts until 1820 (§ 350) ; and Vermont was claimed 
by New Hampshire and New York (§ 55). 



16 ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 

30. The English Parliament. — For about a century after 
the beginning of English colonization in America, the event 
in England which had most influence on the history of 
the colonies was the rise to power of the English Parliament. 
Little by little, it had gained the jiower of taxing the people. 
When Queen Elizabeth died, just before the settlement of 
Jamestown, and a new king, James I., came from Scotland, 
Parliament became bolder in declaring its power. James, and 
still more his son, Charles I., resisted the claim, and even 
attempted at times to govern and lay taxes without calling 
Parliament together. But the people refused to pay such 
taxes, and after each attempt the king was compelled to call 
the Parliament together and ask for money. Then the Par- 
liament refused to levy taxes, unless the king would give up 
other powers which were considered objectionable. 

31. The Commonwealth. — The quarrel at last broke out 
into open war. The Parliament was successful, defeated and 
captured the king, Charles I., and beheaded him as a traitor 
and tyrant. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Parliamentary 
army, became ruler of England, with the title of Lord Pro- 
tector, and held power until his death. This period of Eng- 
lish history is commonly called the Commonwealth. Its sup- 
porters were often called Puiitans, or Koundheads, since they 
cut their hair short, while the king's friends, the Cavaliers, 
wore long curling wigs. 

32. The Restoration. — The English people grew tired of the 
Commonwealth and the rule of the army; and when Crom- 
well died, they sent for Charles L's son, who had been living 
in great poverty in Holland, and made him king, with the 
title of Chailes II. This event is known as the Restoration. 

33. The English Kevolution. — Charles reigned for about 
twenty-five years, and wa^ succeeded by his brother, who had 
been Duke of York, but was now called James II. All these 
four kings, James I., Charles I., Charles II., and James II., 
were named Stuart. They were determined to rule by their 
own will, without Parliament; and James II. was most deter- 
mined of them all. After a few years, his subjects rebelled, 
drove him and his sons away to France, and called in his son* 



PLTMOVTH COLONY. 17 

in-law and daughter, William of Orange and Mary, as king 
and queen. This event, which put an end to the rule of the 
Stuart family, is known as the English Revolution of 1688.* 

New England, 

[Colonization began in Virginia, in the London Company's terri- 
tory ; but, when it bad once begun, it went on more rapidly for a time 
in the northern colonies. We take, therefore, (1) the New England 
colonies, the Plymouth Company's grant ; (2) the southern colonies, 
the Loudon Company's grant ; (3) the middle colonies, the conquered 
territory.] 

(1) Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

34. The Plymouth Colony — In former times it was thought 
necessary to punish by law all who refused to worship accord- 
ing to the form established by their government. Under 
James I. those who followed other forms than that of the 
Church of England (the original of our Episcopal Church) 
were punished so severely that many of them fled to Holland, 
where they were allowed to live in peace. After a time, a 
number of them, called Separatists, returned to Plymouth, in 
England, and thence set sail for New Amsterdam (New York), 
in order to settle there in the possessions of the Dutch, where 
they could worship as they pleased. Storms drove'their ves- 
sel, the Mayflower, from her course, and they landed, one 
hundred in number, in the present State of Massachusetts, at 
Plymouth, December 21, 1620. They named the place Ply- 
mouth, and gradually took possession of the irregular soutli- 
eastern part of Massachusetts, calling it Plymouth Colony. 

35. The Pilgrims. — Only half of the Pilgrims, as the Ply- 
mouth colonists called themselves, lived through the first bitter 
winter. There was no help for them. England cared nothing 
for them ; and on the whole coast there were but two other 



* The dates of these events are as follows: 1603-1625, reign of James I.; 1625- 
1649, reign of Charles I. ; 1649, the king beheaded; 1649-1660, the Commonwealth; 
1653, Cromwell is made Lord Protector; 1658, death of Cromwell; 1660, Restoration; 
1660-1685, reign of Charles II. ; 1685-1689, reign of James II.; 1688, the English Rev- 
olution; 1689-1702, reign of William and Mary. 



18 PLYMOUTH COLONY. 

settlements, Jamestown and St. Augustine.* But the Pilgrims 
built log-houses, using oiled paper instead of glass; tliey 
caught fish and ate what little' food they had brought with 
them; and in the spring they obtained corn from the Indians. 
They had been too poor to provide many of the comforts neces- 
sary for a new settlement; they did not find a very rich soil; 
and there were not many opportunities for getting wealth 
by trading. So Plymouth was at first the poorest of the colo- 
nies ; but its people were hard-working and careful, and they 
gradually prospered. 

36. Their Leaders. — Much of this success was due to the 
leading men of the colony, who were very able men. Miles 
Standish, their military leader, was an old soldier. He was 
" a man of very small stature, yet of a very hot and angry 
temper," and was much dreaded by the Indians. On one 
occasion, he stabbed a hostile chief in the midst of his tribe. 
John Carver was the first governor. He had been the busi- 
ness man of the colony, and managed its affairs very wisely; 
but he died during the first v/inter. William Bradford, as 
wise as Carver and more gentle than Standish, was chosen in 
his place, and was re-elected yearly for thirty years. The 
only years in which he was not re-elected were those in which, 
*' by importunity, he got off." Then the colonists chose 
Edward Win slow, who was much the same sort of man. 

37. The Pilgrim Covenant.— The Plymouth colony never 
was a large one ; and its history, until its union with the 
larger colony of Massachusetts Bay (§ 44), was a quiet one. 
It had no charter, but governed itself under a covenant, or 
agreement, made by the Pilgrims in the cabin of the May- 
flower. This covenant has generally been held to be the be- 
ginning of that tendency toward democracy which finally 
controlled all the colonies (§ 121). It was in Virginia that the 
first Assembly was held ; but permission to hold this Assem- 
bly was given by the governor, and mainly to the wealthier 
planters (§ 71), while the Pilgrims took it upon themselves, 
and gave the privilege to rich and poor alike; so that the 

* There was also a Dutch trading station at the mouth of the Hudson (§ 21). 



MASSACHUSETTS BAT. 



19 



Plymouth colony is considered to have been the beginning of 
self-government in this country. 

38. The Massachusetts Bay Colony. — Nearly ten years after 
tlie landing of the Pilgrims, they liad the pleasure of seeing 
a neighboring colony founded. Men who had not separated 
from the Churcli of England, but disliked some of its cere- 
monies, were called Puritans. They were not punished in 
England as the Separatists had been, but many of them were 
inclined to follow the Pilgrims across the Atlantic and found 
a Puritan church and 
colony. A company of 
them bought from 
the Council of 
Plymouth the 
northern 
part of 
the 




present State of Massachusetts, 
from about Boston northward; and 
Charles I. gave them a charter. At first, 
small parties Avere sent out, wliich settled at 
(^ Salem (1628) andCharlestown; but in a year or 

so the company itself (§ 39) moved over to America, 
' with its officers, charter, and all its powers. Thus 
the Puritans obtained a colony of their own, without any 
dependence upon England, but with complete self-government. 
39. The Great Immigration. — The Puritans supported 
Parliament against King Charles I. (§30); and the troubles 
which finally resulted in war inclined more of them to go to 
New England. The year 1630 made Massachusetts Bay a 
successful colony. At the beginning of that year, New Eng- 



20 MASSACHUSETTS BAT. 

land had no settlers, except the little Plymouth settlement, 
and a few villages to the north of it: then came a fleet uf 
vessels, with 1500 settlers, and Boston, Cambridge, Lynn, 
and other towns were settled. Others followed; these settlors 
were richer than the Pilgrims, and did not suffer so much 
from the cold of winter; and Massachusetts Bay was soon the 
stiongest of the colonies. 

40. The Leaders. — The Massachusetts Bay loaders wore 
many: most of them thought alike, and were determined to 
found a religious state, Avith only such settlers as were of 
their way of thinking. The leader whom they liked best was 
John Endicott, the first governor, a rigid Puritan, who dis- 
liked the symbol of the cross so much that he cut it out of 
the British flags in the colony, who also thought it of great 
importance that the women should wear veils at church and 
that the men should wear their hair short. Governor John 
Winthrop was a more useful leader, and careful of more im- 
portant things. He was an English lawyer, highly educated, 
very gentle and dignified, but believing very strongly in the 
system of the colony. Sir Henry Vane, a young man, rich, 
able, and accomplished, made a groat stir in the colony for a 
few years, but soon returned to England. John Cotton, 
Thomas Hooker, and Samuel Stone were the ablest of the 
ministers who took the lead in the colony's affairs; and the 
colonists said that God had given them " Cotton for their 
clothing. Hooker for their fishing, and Stone for their build- 
ing." 

41. Beligioiis and Political Difficulties. — It was difficult 
to make all men in this colony think alike. The leaders suc- 
ceeded in having a law made that no one should be allowed 
to vote unless he was a membe^ of the church ; and this laAV 
gave rise to constant dissatisfaction. Men of other religious 
beliefs, who gave annoyance by disputing with the Puritan 
ministers, were driven out of the colony; but others came in 
their place. Roger Williams held objectionable views on 
religious liberty and on the relation of the colony to the 
crown: he was ordered back to England; but rather than 



MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 21 

return, he went into the wiklerness and founded the colony 
of Rhode Island (§ 52). Two years afterward, Mrs. Anne 
Hutchinson and her followers were driven away for teaching 
new doctrines. She also went to Rhode Island, and thence 
to New Netherlands, where she was killed by the Indians. 
These were but two of the i-eligious difficulties wliich were 
frequent in the early years of the colony. 

42. The Quakers. — Much of the trouble came from the 
Quakers, who had no fear of punishment, and who returned 
to the colony again and again, and persisted in disturbing 
Puritan meetings. After trying other punishments, the Puri- 
tan leaders undertook to put to death those who returned 
after banishment. This was as ineffectual as other punish- 
ments; and all efforts to suppress Quakerism were finally 
given up. Difficulties with the Quakers ceased at once. 

43. The Salem Witchcraft. — Most people of that time 
believed that there were witches, who received power from 
the devil to hurt or kill men and cattle; and laws against 
witches were common everywhere. At one time (1693) the 
town of Salem became crazed with the belief that witches 
were at work there. Before the terror died away, about 
twenty innocent persons, mostly old women and Indians, had 
been put to death as witches. Finally, the magistrates and 
people came to their senses; and punishments for witchcraft 
were stoj^ped. 

44. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay United. — The Massa- 
chusetts Bay colony lived under its charter for some fifty 
years, gradually taking possession of the rest of New England 
to the north of it. Then the king's judges in England decided 
that the colony's government had been taking more power than 
had been given to it, and that it had no longer any right to its 
charter. The colony was not strong enough to resist, and it 
submitted to a new charter (1691), which made New Hamp- 
shire a separate colony, and united the colony of Plymouth, 
the province of Maine, and the tei'ritory of Nova Scotia, to 
the colony of Massachusetts Bay. Under this charter the 
colony prospered until the Revolution. 



22 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, i. 300 foil. ; ii. 120, 344; Hildreth, 
i. l.li-^UU. 22», 5u3; Bryant and Guy, i, 370. 400, 517; Doyle, ii. ol, 97, 
31 1; iii. 98. :.'21, 298; Barry's Hixtory of Massachusetts; Bulfrey, i. 133, 
164. 283; Adnina's Emancipation of Massachusetts, rii), 141; Lodge, 341 
foil.; Mrs. liemniis's Latiding of the I'ilyrims; LougitUow's Courtship of 
Miles blandish; Hawihorue's Scarlet Letter. '\ 

(2) New Hampsliire. 

45. New Hampshire. — One of the grants made by tlie 
Council of Plymouth gave the territory between the Merrimac 
and Kennebec rivers to Sir Ferdiiiando Gorges and John 
Ma«on (1G23). After a few years, the two proprietors divided 
their territory, Mason calling his share New Hampshire, from 
his own county of Hampshire in England, while the rest of 
the grant became part of Maine. New Hampshire never was 
a large colony; its settlements were mostly fishing villages, 
Portsmouth and Dover being the largest places. The colony 
joined Massachusetts Bay, was separated, and again joined it. 
In 1691, the king made it a royal colony, and it remained so 
until the Revolution.* 

[Supplementary Reading.— 5«ncro/<. i. 327; Hildreth, i. 168, 200, 502; 
Bryant and Gay, i. 333; Palfrey, 1. 522; Doyle, ii. 201; iii. 294; Lodge, 
397.] 

(3) Connecticut. 

46. The Connecticut Colony. — Many of the Massachusetts 
settlers thought that their colony did too much of the work 
of governing, leaving too little to the towns. Their leaders 
were Hooker, the ablest minister of the colony (§ 40), and 
Stone. After several years of discussion, Hooker's follower.^ 
determined to remove into the wilderness to the southwest, 
and established a colony of their own, where the people of 
each town could govern themselves more fully (1G34). Their 
first towns were Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford; and 
delegates from these towns met (1631)) and formed for the 
Connecticut eolony the first Avritten constitution in Amcriea. 

47. The Saybrook Colony. — A number of proprietors in 

* Gorges's share became part of the province of IMaiue (see § 44). 



CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN. 




CoffNECTicuT Colony. 



England, whose leaders were Lord Say and Lord Brooke, 
claimed the territory along the Connecticut Eiver, and one of 
their parties made 
a settlement at the 
mouth of the river, 
called Saybrook 
(1635). They made 
no further effort to 
colonize, and their 
claims were pur- 
chased by Connecti- 
cut. 

48. The Pequot 
War. — The early 
history of Connecti- 
cut was merely that 
of the usual colonial struggle against cold and hunger and 
Indians. The principal Indian difficulties were with the 
Pequots, a powerful tribe in eastern Connecticut. Two bat- 
tles, one near Groton, the other near Fairfield, put an end to 
the war (1637), and the colony had little further trouble with 
the Indians. 

49. The New Haven Colony. — Jnst after the settlement of 
Connecticut, a company of English immigrants, under Kev. 
John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton, settled on the shore 
of Long Island Sound. They bought land from the Indians, 
and called their town New Haven. Soon six little towns were 
united under the name of the New Haven Colony. Its sys- 
tem was like that of Massachusetts Bay, in allowing no one 
but church-members to vote or hold office. 

50. The Colonies United. — The leading man of tlie Con- 
necticut colony was John Winthrop, son of the Massachusetts 
Bay governor (§ 40). He was one of the wisest, kindest, and 
best of men; and after a time his colony sent him to England 
for the purpose of obtaining a charter from the king. When 
the charter (1662) was brought over, it was found to coverall 
the present State of Connecticut, taking in the former colony 



24 RHODE ISLAND. 

of New Haven. The New Haven people submitted unwill- 
ingly; but tlie charter, wliich permitted the people to govern 
themselves in everything, to elect both governor and Assem- 
bly, to make their own laws, and to put the laws into effect, 
soon came to suit all the people so well that it remained in 
force long after the Revolution.* 

51. The Charter Oak. — When James II. undertook to unite 
all the New England colonies into one royal colony (§ 59), 
his governor, Andros, appeared at Hartford and demanded 
the charter. While the argument was going on in the even- 
ing, the lights were suddenly blown out ; and before they 
could be re-lit, the charter had been taken out and hidden in 
a hollow oak-tree near by. When King James had been 
driven from the throne, the charter was brought out again, 
and the government went on as before. The story goes to 
show, at any rate, how much the people of the colonies had 
already come to value self-government; for Connecticut peo- 
ple called the tree the " charter oak," and took great care of it 
until it was blown down in a storm, nearly two hundred years 
afterward (1858). 

[Supplementary 'Re&Hmg.— Bancroft, i. 395; ii. 52, 430; Hildreth, i. 
203, 229, 248, 26U; iii. 85; Bryant and Gay. i. 547; ii 1, 22, 391; Doyle, 
ii. 149; iii. 120, 245; Palfrey, i. 528; Hollister's Rutory of Conneaknt; 
Johnstou's Histm-y of Connecticut; DeFoiesl's Indians of Connecticut. '\ 

(4) Rhode Island. 

52. Roger Williams. — When Roger Williams (§ 41) had 
been driven from Massachusetts, he took refuge among the 
Indians at the head of Narragausett Ray (1G36). Their chief, 
Canonicus, gave him a tract of land, and he called the place 
Providence, in remembrance of the manner in which he felt 
that God had guided him thither. Others followed him, and 
settled on the large island in the bay called Rhode Island, 



* The early rtivision into colonies was long marked by the fact that Ponnecticut 
had two capitals, Hartford and New Haven. Since 1873 Hartford has been sole 
capital. 



RHODE ISLAND. 



25 



Portsmouth and Newport being their chief towns. Another 
and smaller settlement was at Warwick. 

53. Colony of Ehode Island.— These different settlements, 
or ''plantations," were quite separate for some years; but 
Williams was continually trying to unite them into one col- 
ony, and at last suc- 




ceeded. The charter 
which was granted by 
King Charles II. 
(1663) gave the col- 
ony the name of 
Rhode Island and 
Providence Planta- 
tions, which is still 
its proper name. It 
gave the people the 
same rights as in Con- 
necticut (§ 50); and 
just as in Connecti- 
cut, the people kept Rhode island Colony. 

their charter as their form of government until long after 
the Revolution (§ 429). 

54. Toleration. — Rhode Island was but a little colony. 
Its people were farmers, except in the towns of Newport and 
Providence, which were engaged in commerce. The most 
notable point in the colony's history was its people's refusal 
to persecute those who did not agree with them in religion. 
The spirit of Roger Williams seemed to control all the early 
history of Rhode Island; and its people always welcomed 
those who had been driven out of the neighboring colonies, 
even while the stronger colonies around, Massachusetts, Ply- 
mouth, and Connecticut, claimed nearly all the territory of 
Rhode Island, and it seemed unsafe to provoke them. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, i. 367; ii. 61; Palfrey, i. 606; ii. 
207: Hiklreth. i. -im, 291, 877. 39(i, 458; Bryant and Gay, i. 5»1; ii. 97; 
Doyle, il 113, 179, 267, 319: iii. 244; Greeim's History of Rhode Island; 
Gammell's Life of Roger Wiliiaias.} 



26 NEW ENGLAND. 

55. Vermont. — The present State of Vermont was not a 
colony. Its territory wus claimed by both New York and 
New Hampshire; and its people, the " Green Mountain Boys," 
finding that they were to be called upon to pay for their 
lands twice over, formed a government of their own, which 
was kept up throughout the Revolution (§ 199). 

(5) New England iii General. 

56. The New England Union. — As soon as the first four 
New England colonies had been fairly settled, they joined 
for mutual defence in what was known as the New England 
Union (1643). They refused to admit Rhode Island, whose 
territory they claimed as their own. After some twenty 
years of existence, this Union was silently allowed to disap- 
pear, because it was known that the king did not like any 
such union of colonies, for fear they might set up for them- 
selves. 

57. The Navigation Acts. — As the colonies grew richer, and 
began to turn to manufactures and commerce, English manu- 
facturers, who wished to keep the tiade of the colonies in 
their own hands, asked the English Parliament to help them. 
Parliament therefore passed the laws known as the Naviga- 
tion Acts (1G51), forbidding the colonies to trade with other 
countries than England, or to permit foreign ships to enter 
their ports for trade. These Acts were not Avell enforced; the 
revenue officers were careless or took bribes; and New Eng- 
land merchants were forced to be smugglers, and to engage 
in trade which Avas forbidden by law. The efforts to enforce 
these laws, a hundred years later, did much to bring on the 
Revolution (§ 154). 

68. King Philip's War. — The "Wampauoags were a Rhode 
Island tribe of Indians, whose chief was called King Philip 
by the colonists. King Philip saw that the whites were 
driving his people slowly out of their lands, and he united 
the Indians, from ]\Iaine to the Hudson River, in a league 
against the English. The first blow was struck at Swanzey, 



KEW ENGLAND. 27 

Massachusetts (1675); but similar attacks were made at the 
same time upon the villages all along the froutier, especially 
in western Massachusetts. For a time it looked as if the 
whites were to be driven into the sea, or back to England. 
But after nearly two years of fighting they hemmed in 
Philip's best men in a fort in a swamp near Kingston, Rhode 
Island, and killed nearly all of them. Soon afterward, Philip 
himself was caught and shot at nis principal residence, Mount 
Hope, near Bristol, Rhode Island, and the war was ended. 
From that time, there was little serious danger from the New 
England Indians. 

59. The Andros Government The New England colonies 

had gone on prosperously for about fifty years, when King 
James II. determined to unite them all into one royal colony, 
under Sir Edmund Andros as his governor (1686). All the 
colonies submitted to him for a time (§ 51); but the colonists 
hated him, for he governed cruelly and tyrannically, and such 
a government was a different thing from the self-government 
to which they had been accustomed. At the first news of the 
revolution in England, which drove the king from his throne 
(§ 33), the Boston people seized Andros and sent him back to 
England. Connecticut and Rhode Island were allowed to 
put their old charters in force again; but the new king took 
the opportunity to change the old charter of Massachusetts 
(§ 44). 

60. Early French Wars — During the early years of the 
colonies, England and France were very often at war. There 
was no good reason why the colonies should take part in these 
wars: and the English colonies, which governed themselves, 
had no desire to take part in them. But the French Colony 
of Canada was governed by officials sent out from France, 
and these were determined to do their share of the fiohtinsr. 
They sent out parties of French and Indians across the wil- 
derness between, and attacked and burned the outlying vil- 
lages, carrying away to Canada those who were not killed. 
The English colonies were thus forced into war; but these 
early wars were carried on mainly by New England and New 



28 



NEW ENGLAND. 



York. The first three of them are called, from the name of 
the English rulers, King William's War (1689-1 G97), Queen 
Anne's War (1702-1713), and King George's AVar (1744- 
1748). 

61. The French Strongholds. — The English colonists hardly 
hoped to capture the great French strongholds of Montreal 

and Quebec. They were 
anxious to capture Port 
Royal (now Annapolis), 
a town on a fine liarbor 
in Acadia (Nova Scotia), 
and Louisburgh, a 
strong fortress on the 
southeast coast of Cape 
Breton Island ; for it was 
from these places that 
French vessels sailed out 
and captured the New 
England fishing-boats 
Their first effort, during 




SCALE OF MILES 



100 200 400 600 

Early French Wars. 
on the Newfoundland banks. 
King W^illiam's War, to take Port Royal was successful; but 
the home government gave the place back to France at the 
end of the war. In Queen Anne's War it was taken again 
and kept. Louisburgh was held by the French for about 
fifty years, until in King George's War it was captured by a 
great expedition made up of New England and New York 
troops. Even then it was given back at the end of the war, 
and it was necessary to take it again in the last war, called 
the French and Indian War, in Avhich all Canada was finally 
conquered (§ 141). 

62. Popnlation. — In the hundred and fifty years of which 
we have been speaking ('1()0G-1748), the po])ulation of New 
England had increased until its colonies contained perhaps 
half a million inhabitants, about as many as lived in 1880 in 
Chicago or Brooklyn. 'I'hey were scattered at first along the 
Atlantic coast; but, as land began to grow dearer in the origi- 
nal towns, some of the people had begun to move farther inland. 



NEW ENGLAND. 29 

Parties of them had even entered what is now Vermont (§ 55). 
But such outlying settlements were exposed to attacks by 
French and Indians ; and the men had to be always in readi- 
ness for adventures of this sort. 

63. Agriculture. — New England people were generally 
farmers; there were no such manufacturing towns as are now 
so numerous in New England. There was no such thing as 
agricultural machinery; the farmer sowed his grain by hand, 
used a wooden plough tipped with an iron point, cut the 
grain with a scythe, and threshed it with a flail on the barn 
floor. Most farmers could not send their grain to other coun- 
tries and get in return such things as they needed; it cost too 
much at that time to carry to any great distance such bulky 
articles as grain. Each farmer therefore raised all that he 
used, and used all that he raised. " Beef and pork, salt fish, 
dried apples, and vegetables, made up the daily fare from 
one year's end to another." Most men dressed in homespun, 
made in the house, and cut and sewed by a travelling tailor, 
with shoes made from calf-skin by a travelling cobbler. 

64. Travel. — He who wished to travel might go on foot, 
on horseback, or, in some cases, by sailing-vessel; very rich 
men used their own horses and carriages. Most people 
stayed at home, for the cost and danger of travelling were 
very great. Not many men ever went five miles from their 
own town throughout their lives, unless it were to seek a new 
home. Toward the end of this period, stage-coaches were in- 
troduced ; but they were only covered wagons, terribly un- 
comfortable for the traveller, and six days were needed for 
one to go from Boston to New York. 

65. Education. — Almost all New England people were edu- 
cated, though the schools would be thought ridiculously poor 
now. They only taught their pupils to spell, to read, to 
write, and to cipher a little. But even this was far more 
than could be said of the people of any other country at that 
time. There were two colleges in New England, two of the 
first three founded in America : Harvard, at Cambridge, in 
Massachusetts (1637), and Yale, at New Haven, in Connecti- 



30 VIRGINIA. 

cut (1'700). But a college then was uot what it is now, a 
great number of fine buildings, with museums, libraries, many 
professors, and instruction covering every variety of subject; 
it was only two or three buildings, with a few professors, and 
subjects which would now be thought too easy for the lower 
classes in college. It should be borne in mind, however, 
that books give but a small part of education; the American 
of that day learned to think for himself; if he did not read 
many books, the few he did read were usually excellent books, 
and he studied them thoroughly; and the little colleges sent 
great men into the world, 

66. Commerce and Manufactures. — New England winters 
seem to have been colder then than now; and the constant 
struggle against a severe climate made the people thrifty and 
hardy. Though most of them were farmers, they had begun 
to have ships, commerce, and fisheries, and there were the be- 
ginnings of mining and manufactures. Parliament had 
passed laws to stop such attempts (§ 57), so that the colonies 
would be compelled to buy English goods; but these laws 
were not obeyed, and only gave additional trouble, 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 56) Bancroft, i. 420; Hildreth, i. 285, 
463; Palfrey, i. 623; Doyle, ii. 220. (^57) Bancroft, i. 218; ii. 122. 
(§ 58) Bancroft, ii. 98; Hildreth, i. 480; Bryant and Gay, ii. 402; Doyle, 
iii. 162; Palfrey, iii. 132; Lodge, 357. (t; 59) Bancroft, ii. 427; Jlil- 
dretn, ii. 82; Doyle, iii. 234; Palfrey, iii. 513. (4? 60-61) Doyle, iii. 281. 
347. 369; Bancroft, iii. 220, 457. (g 63-66) Drake, 135, 231; Palfrey, ii. 
5; Oilman, 244; McMaster, i. 18 foil.; Goodrich's Recollections, i. b3, 126.] 

The Southern Colonies. 
(1) Viy()inia. 

67. The Virginia Colony. — The first Virginia settlement, 
the first English settlement in our country, was made in IGOT 
at Jamestown (§ 24). "rhe settlers there were not such men 
and women as liad come to New England, driven only by un- 
willingness to obey bad laws. They were men without wives 
and children, and men who had failed to do useful work in 
England, and hoped to find gold-mines, or some easier way of 



vmoiNiA. 31 

becoming rich, in the new country. And so, for several years, 
the colony had a hard struggle for existence. The people had 
quite decided, several times, to return to England, when new 
supplies of men and food changed their purpose, and saved 
the colony. Before the Plymoutli colony was planted, Vir- 
ginia had become firmly establislied. It liad its town, its out- 
lying plantations, and a regular government of its own at a 
time when there was no other English settlement on the 
whole great continent, nor any Europeans, except the few 
French settlers in Canada (§ 14), the Dutch traders at the 
mouth of the Hudson (§ 21), and the Spaniards in Florida 

68. Captain John Smith. — Most of this success was due to 
one man. Captain John Smith. Smitli Avas a man of vivid 
imagination, and a wonderful story-teller, though the truth of 
many of his stories lias been doubted. One of these is of his 
capture by the Indians, their decision to beat out his brains 
with a war-club, and his rescue by Pocahontas, the daughter 
of the chief Powhatan. It is true, however, that there was 
an Indian girl named Pocahontas, and that she married a 
white settler, visited England, and died there; and it was 
during her visit that Smith first told tliis story. In spite of 
the wonderful nature of Smith's stories, he seems to have 
been a bold and shrewd leader, able to make the lazy colonists 
work, to control the vicious, and to make a successful colony 
out of what seemed a certain failure. Much of the first knowl- 
edge of the coast as far north as New Ejigland came from 
his explorations. 

69. Tobacco. — The colony of Virginia grew rich rapidly 
from the cultivation of tobacco, which was used in Europe 
more and more every year. The colonists built their own 
ships, shipped their tobacco to Europe, and brought back 
European articles in exchange. Tobacco became even their 
money, and everything was paid for in so many pounds of 
tobacco. 

70. Plantations. — As the country became settled, life in 
Virginia grew far easier. The worthless men who had set- 



32 



VIRGINIA. 



tied at Jamestown at first soon gave place to wealthy gentle- 
men, with their slaves atid dependents ; and life in Virginia 
came to be more like English life than could have been 
expected in a colony. It was altogether different from that 
of New England. Instead of little towns, with a multitude of 
small farms, there were great plantations, each with its large 
mansion, furnished with luxuries from Europe, The planter 
usually sent his children to England to be educated. AVilliam 
and Mary College (1692), the second founded in the United 
States, was the only college in the southern colonies. 

71. Government. — The loss of the London Company's char- 
ter (§ 25) made Virginia a royal colony. But the planters 

were so accustomed to rule on 
their own plantations that the 
governors found them difficult 
to control, and were forced to 
give them a share in the gov- 
ernment. They therefore intro- 
duced a law-making body known 
as The Assembly (§ 37), so 
that there was self-government 
in the original colony of Vir- 
ginia before the Pilgrims landed 
at Plymouth. But the colony 
was always inclined to side with 
the king rather than Avith the 
Parliament, and it rejoiced to 
see the Restoration (§ 32). It 
called itself the king's ''ancient 
dominion," since it had always been loyal to him; and Vir- 
ginia is still often called the "Old Dominion." But the 
new king showed the cplony little favor; on one occasion he 
even made a present of his "ancient dominion" to one of 
his court favorites, though he took it back again nine years 
afterward. 

72. Indian Wars, — Twice, in the early years of the colony. 




ROANOKE I. 



SCALE OF M ILES 

50 100 

Virginia Colony. 



VIRGINIA. 33 

the Indians treacherously attacked the outlying settlements 
and massacred a number of settlers. The first of these occa^ 
sions was about the time of the landing of the Pilgrims, and 
the second about twenty years afterward. By this time the 
colonists had become so numerous that there was peace until 
the year of King Philip's War, when the Maryland Indians 
seem to have known of it, and to have become troublesome to 
the Virginians. 

73. Bacon's Rebellion. — Berkeley was then (1676) the 
royal governor of Virginia, and he and his friends had all 
the powers of government in their own hands. They be- 
lieved that the Maryland Indians had been unjustly treated, 
and refused to make war on them. Nathaniel Bacon, a young 
planter, made war without the authority of the governor. 
He raised troops among the colonists, defeated the Indians, 
and then drove Berkeley out of Jamestown.* Bacon's sudden 
death put an eiid to the rebellion, and then the enraged 
governor took his revenge by hanging all the leading rebels. 
Said the king, " The old fool has taken away more lives in 
that naked country than I have for the murder of my 
father." f 

74. The Territory of Yirginia. — One colony after another 
was carved out of the London Company's grant (§26), but the 
part that was left still kept the name of Virginia, covering 
the present States of Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky. 
But Virginia claimed far more than this, asserting that its 
northern boundary ran northwest instead of directly west, so 
that it took in also western Pennsylvania and the present great 
northwestern States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and 
Wisconsin. This claim of Virginia gave much trouble after 
the Eevolution (§ 242). 

[Supplementary Beading. — Bancroft, i. 120, 182; ii. 188; Hildretli, i. 
99, 335, 509; Bryant and Gay, i. 272, 476, ii. 200, 290; Doyle, i. 109 foil.; 



* Jamestown was burned in the struggle, and was never rebuilt; and Williams- 
town became the capital . 

t The chase after these rebels had one good effect, in driving many of them to 
the southward, and thus beginning the settlement of North Carolina (§ 83). 



34 



MARYLAND. 



Lodge, 4\ foil.; Cooke's Virginia; Campbell's Virginia. (%6S) Bancroft, 
i. 130; Doyle, i. 153; iV^. A. Rev. 1867. {%10) McMastei', i. 72. (§71) 
Doyle, i. 158: Bancroft, ii. 209. (f? 72) Hildreth, \. 124,340. ( t^ 73) 
Hi'ldreth, i. 533; Bancroft, ii. 222; Z>o^^e, 241. (§74) H. B. Adams's 
Maryland's Influence.} 

(2) Maryland. 

75. The Roman Catholic Colony. — Roman Catholics, as well 
as Quakers, were persecuted by English law; and Sir George 
Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a leading English Catholic, deter- 
mined to found a colony in which they should find a refuge. 
Charles I. granted him that part of Virginia east of tlie 
Potomac River, calling it Maryland, in honor of his queen 
(§ 26). Baltimore died, but the patent was given to his son, 
Cecil Calvert, in 1632. 

76. Settlement of Maryland. — Within two years, Leonard 
Calvert, a brother of the new Lord Baltimore, brought over a 

party of settlers to St. 




Mary's, near the mouth 
of the Potomac. Other 
towns soon grew up. The 
two most flourishing 
places were Annapolis 
and Baltimore, but these 
were not founded until 
many years after the 
original settlement. To- 
bacco held the same 
place in Maryland as in Virginia, and was the great source 
of wealth. But the additional advantages of Maryland 
were the Chesapeake Bay, which gave every opportunity for 
commerce, and the Susquehanna River, which opened up to 
Maryland merchants the Indian trade. So the colony flour- 
ished, and Baltimore became one of the busiest places on the 
coast. 

77. Government. — The Calvert family from the beginning 
provided for an Assembly to make laws and levy taxes; and the 
people of Maryland enjoyed self-government throughout their 
existence as a colony. All that the proprietors gained by the 



MABTLAND. 35 

establishment of the colony was the annual payment of some 
small taxes by the people. When the English Eevolution 
(§ 33) took place, the Calverts were deprived of their proprie- 
tary rights by the new king ; and for about twenty years Mary- 
land was a royal colony. Then it was restored to the Calverts; 
but the last of the family died just before the Revohitionary 
war, leaving Maryland very much as it had always been, under 
its own control. 

78. Toleration.— As long as the Catholics retained control 
of Maryland, religious persecution was not allowed, and men 
of any church were permitted to settle in the colony. The 
new settlers were not so liberal; and when they obtained 
control, they passed laws compelling all men to pay taxes for 
the support of the Church of England. A church thus sup- 
ported by the state is called an "established" church. The 
unfortunate Roman Catholics, who had founded the colony 
and admitted others to it, were now harshly treated, forbidden 
to vote, and forced to pay taxes for the support of a church 
to which they did not belong. This state of things lasted 
until the Revolution (§ 242), when the Catholics gave such 
hearty support to the American cause that all these old restric- 
tions were removed. 

79. Mason and Dixon's Line. — When the colony of Pennsyl- 
vania had been formed to the north of Maryland (§ 113), there 
was a long dispute and many lawsuits between the two colonies 
as to the boundary line between them. Finally (1763) they 
agreed on the present line, and, from the names of the survey- 
ors who marked it, it is still known as " Mason and Dixon's 
line." It was long considered also as the boundary between 
the Northern States, which had abolished slavery, and the 
Southern States, in which slavery was still maintained by 
law. 

[Supplementary "Re&diing.— Bancroft, i. 236; ii. 238; Hildreth, i. 204, 
346, 566; Bryant and Gay, i. 486; Doyle, i. 275; Lodge, 93; Neill's 
Terra Marm; Bozman's Maryland; Onderdonk's Maryland. (§ 79) 
Bancroft, ii. 394; Hildreth, ii. 74, 341; Lat robe's Mason and Dixon's 
Line.] 



36 



NORTH CAROLINA. 




(3) North Carolina. 

80. Carolina. — Soon after the Restoration (§ 32), Charles II. 
granted all the territory now in the States of North Carolina, 

South Carolina, and Geor- 
gia, westward to the Pa- 
cific Ocean, to eight pro- 
prietors. A hundred 
years before (§ 13), the 
French had called this 
territory Carolina (or 
Carolana), in honor of 
their king, Charles IX. 
\irohis, in Latin), and the English 
etained the name, in honor of their 
king, Charles II. The country had re- 
mained uninhabited since the failure of the 
French colonies, except that a few Vir- 
carolina. ginians had pushed down the coast and 

settled the northern shore of Albemarle Sound. 

81. Go"vernment. — The proprietors attempted to frame a 
government for their colony, different from those of the other 
colonies. There were to be nobles, called barons, landgraves, 
and caziques, each with a certain number of acres, and certain 
powers of government. The rest of the people were to have 
no share in the government, and were to be bought and sold 
with the soil, just as, until recently, the serfs were, in Russia. 
The plan was ridiculous for an American colony; the settlers 
would not obey it; and after trying it for about twenty years, 
the proprietors gave it up. 

82. Division of Carolina. — Travel was very difficult in 
those days (§ 64), and it was found that the territory was too 
large for a single colony: the people at either end of it knew 
nothing of one another. It was therefore decided that, as 
the two parts already had two separate Assemblies, they should 
now be two separate royal colonies, under the names of North 
Carolina and South Carolina (1729). 

83. North Carolina. — When the Carolina charter was given 



NORTH GAUOLINA. 37 

(1663), a few Virginians had settled on the shores of Albemarle 
Sound, and more came after the suppression of Bacon's rebell- 
ion (§ 73). This was called the Albemarle settlement. Then 
other colonists came from Barbadoes and settled near the 
Cape Fear River. This was called the Clarendon settlement; 
but it was soon removed to South Carolina. Then for a long 
time population grew very slowly. Along the coast, where 
the great pine woods were, settlers were always few, and were 
mainly engaged in making tar and turpentine from the ti-ees. 
The country farther from the coast was found to be much 
more open and fertile, and most of the population was gathered 
here. It was increased, after a time, by a number of immi- 
grants who had been engaged in rebellion in Scotland, and 
had been permitted by the British government to settle in 
North Carolina. 

84. Toleration. — The people refused to allow religious per- 
secutions, and made their colony a place of refuge for those 
who had been persecuted in other colonies or countries. 
Nearly every one in the colony thus came to have a spirit of 
personal independence which was not pleasant to their gov- 
ernors, who considered them " a turbulent people." 

85. Government.— The colony, too, was unfortunate in its 
governors. Most of them were bad men and bad governors; 
and there was an almost constant struggle between them and 
their people. In several cases, the people imprisoned or drove 
away their governors. Just before the Revolution, Governor 
Tryon's administration became so intolerably bad that the 
people rose in rebellion (1771), calHng themselves Regulators, 
and trying to obtain better government. The governor de- 
feated them in a battle, and punished those whom he captured 
so cruelly that very many others were driven across the moun- 
tains, and thus began the settlement of Tennessee (§ 213). 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ii. 129; HildretJi, ii. 25; Bryant 
and Gay, ii. 268; Doyle, i. 328; Lodge, 132, 148. (§81) Bancroft ii 146- 
Doyle, i. 335. (§83) Bancroft, ii. 156; Hildreth, ii. 27. (§85) HUdreth 
ii. 40, 569; Bancroft, vi. 381; Doyle, i. 348; Lodge, 145.] 



38 SOUTH CAHOLmA. 

(4) South Carolina. 

86. South Carolina. — Settlement in the southern part of 
Carolina began a few years later than in the northern part. 
The first settlement (1670) was at Charleston, not the present 
city of that name, but a place afterwards known as Old 
Charlestown, a few miles farther up the Ashley River.* It 
grew slowly, increased by the Clarendon settlement from 
North Carolina (§ S3), by Dutch settlers from New York, 
and by Dutch and Scotch immigrants. 

87. Rice and Indigo. — The wealth of the colony began 
when the cultivation of rice was introduced, soon after the 
first settlement; rice was the money of the colony, as tobacco 
was in Virginia and Maryland. Indigo was introduced at a 
later period. Cotton was not much cultivated until after the 
Revolution; and it then brought more wealth than either rice 
or indigo had ever done. 

88. Negro Slavery. — Negroes were brought into the colony 
as slaves at an early period; and more were brought when rice 
began to be cultivated. Before many years, there were twice 
as many negroes as whites in the lowland district along the 
coast, where it was unhealthy for white laborers. Here were 
the great plantations, where the rice and indigo grew. The 
upland district, toward the mountains, contained the smaller 
farms and the i)oorer people. 

89. Toleration. — Most of the wealthy people of the coast 
district were members of the Church of England, and they 
made this the established church (§ 78) of the colony. But 
there cannot be said to have been any religious persecutions. 

90. Government. — Until the separation, the troubles of 
the South Carolina colonists with their governors were much 
the same as in North Carolina, From that time. South Caro- 
lina enjoyed more peace. The leading and wealthier families 
of the colony were permitted to do most of the law-making, 
and they generally did their work well. South Carolina be- 
came a small colony when Georgia was carved out of it (§ 91) ; 

* Charleston was called Charlestown until after the Revolution. 



GEORGIA. 39 

but at the Kevolution it was one of the richest and most 

prosperous of the colonies, and had least reason to complain. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ii. 166 ; Uildreth, ii. 33; Bryant 
and Gay, ii. 355; Doyle, i. 355; Lodge, 158 ; (§ 87) Bancroft, iii. 20; 
Johnson, iii. 1637; Simms, 115. (§ 88) Williams, i. 289. (§ 90) Lodge, 
163.] 

(5) Georgia. 

91. Georgia. — James Oglethorpe, a kind-hearted English 
officer, founded the last and weakest of the colonies, as a 
refuge for the English poor. King George II. granted him 
the territory covered by the present States of Georgia, Ala- 
bama, and Mississippi (1732); and the colony was named 
Georgia in honor of the king. Parliament voted money to as- 
sist those who wished to emigrate. 

92. Settlement. — Oglethorpe brought over a colony at 
once, and established the town of Savannah (1733). He 
treated the Indians so fairlv that they gave the colony little 
trouble. PojDulatiou increased very slowly, however; as a col- 
ony, Georgia was never more than a few settlements along the 
Savannah Eiver, and the rest of its territory was an Indian 
country. When the Eevolution broke out, it had a popula- 
tion of only about thirty thousand, while that of Virginia was 
nearly twenty times as large. 

93. Government. — Slavery was at first forbidden in the 
colony. The proprietors, thinking that this was the reason 
for the slowness of the colony's growth, permitted negro slav- 
ery. As this brought no improvement, they then surrendered 
their charter to the king, and Georgia became a royal colony 
(1752). 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, iii. 418, iv. 130; Uildreth, ii. 
362; Bryant and Gay, iii. 140; Lodge, 187.] 

(6) The Southern Colonies iji General. 

94. Indentured Servants. — Many white persons came to 
the colonies under a system which resembled negro slavery. 
They were mostly persons who had been convicted of rebell- 
ion or lighter offences in the mother-country, and were sent 



40 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES. 

to the colonies on condition of working a certain number of 
years for masters there. These were called indentured ser- 
vants. All the colonists got some of them. But the king's 
government was not fond of sending many of them to New 
England, whose people favored Parliament rather than the 
king (§ 30); and so most of them were sent to the southern 
colonies. Free white men did not look upon them as equals. 
So the population of the southern colonies fell into three 
classes: rich whites, poor whites, and negro slaves. This was 
different from tiie state of things in the other colojiies, where 
almost every one was equal, rich or poor ; and it made the peo- 
ple of the south different in many other points. 

95. Plantations. — A colony in the south, then, was not, 
as in New England, a close collection of small farms, with a 
wilderness around it; it was a little village, and around it a 
number of largo plantations reaching out into the wilderness. 
Each plantation had one rich white family, some poor white 
families, and a number of negro slaves. The rich whites 
were well educated, and had a habit of commanding which 
made them natural leaders, and gave them a dislike of being 
governed by others. They really made up the " people" of 
the southern colonies, for the other whites were guided by 
them, and the slaves had no share in the government.* 

96. Early Wars. — There was some trouble from pirates on 
the coast; but, excepting these, the southern colonies were 
less exposed to enemies than the other colonies. The French 
were not near them; and the Sjjaniards, who then held Florida, 
were no nearer than St. Augustine. In Queen Anne's War 
(§ 60), an expedition from South Carolina captured St. Au- 
gustine, but was driven away by the arrival of two Spanish 
war-vessels. The Spaniards then sent an expedition against 
Charleston ; but the South Carolinians fought so well that it 
was beaten off with the loss of half its men. When the next 
war against Spain came, thirty years afterward, Georgia had 
been founded, and the whole burden of the war fell on Ogle- 

* All this was less true of North Carolina, and parts of Maryland and South 
Carolina. 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES. 41 

thorpe. At first, he carried on the war in Florida itself, and 
with some success; but the Spaniards were too strong for him, 
and he retired to the mouth of the Altamaha [(d-ta-ma-hmo''\ 
River. Here he awaited the Spaniards, who had organized an 
expedition to follow him, and defeated them. This put an 
end to the war. 

97. Indian Wars. — The southern colonies had also little 
trouble with the Indians. The only important struggle in 
North Carolina was with the Tuscaroras, who were beaten and 
driven off to New York, where they became one of the Six 
Nations of Indians (§ 6). As the settlements farther south 
began to extend into the country far from the coast, the set- 
tlers came into contact with Indians who were much more 
difficult to conquer. While there were no great wars, there 
was a constant increase of danger from Indians until the 
Revolution. 

98. Population. — The number of persons in the southern 
colonies increased as rapidly as in the northern colonies. 
But there was this very great difference, that the territory of 
New England was very small, while that of the southern colo- 
nies was very large. Before the increase of population in 
New England had gone far. New England began to be a little 
crowded, and trades and occupations which are impossible in 
a thinly-settled country came into existence. Growth of 
population never made the southern territory at all crowded 
until long after the Revolution, all that happened was that 
the plantations were pushed farther out into the wilderness, 
and the whole country was still thinly settled. During the 
Revolution when armies came to march through New Eng- 
land and the Middle States, they met little towns every few 
miles; in the south, they came only to one plantation after 
another, with great stretches of forest between. This was one 
reason why there were few schools, or newspapers, or any such 
things, in the southern colonies. 



42 NEW YORK. 

The Middle Colonies. 

99. The Middle Colonies. — We have now followed the de- 
velopment of the colonies in New England and the South. 
It should be remembered that, before the English had a firm 
foothold in either of these sections, the Dutch had made a 
place for themselves between, and that they held this 
ground for some fifty years. To make all the English colonies 
one country, it was first necessary that the English should get 
control of this middle region; and we are now to see how this 
came about. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, iv. 129; Hildreth. \. 352; ii. 421, 
428; Doyle, i. 381 foil.; Lodge, 78. 125, 201; Coffin's Old Times in the 
Colonies; Ildrper's Mag , Feb , 1883; Cent. Mag., Jan., June, Oct., 
1884; April, July, 188'); Fvske, 21; Thackeray's Virginians. (% 94) 
Bancroft, ii. 250; Hildreth, i. 428; Lodge. 70 (and see Index, under Ser- 
vants). (^ 96) Bancroft, iil. 209, 443; Hildreth, ii. 228, 376, 383. (§ 97) 
Bancroft, ill. 246; Hildreth, ii. 268, 334.] 

(1) Netv York. 

100. New Netherlands. — We have already seen liow Hud- 
son found the great river which bears his name, and how the 
.Dutch fixed a colony at its mouth (§ 21). The Dutch control 
lasted for about fifty years. New Amsterdam (New York City) 
being the principal place. There were a number of little 
villages on Long Island and on the banks of the Hudson. 
The main business was the fur-trade with the Indians; wars 
with the Indians were generally avoided. 

101. The Fatroons. — The Dutch granted large tracts of 
land to "patroons," men who were willing to bring over a 
number of settlers for those estates. The colony was thus dif- 
ferent from New England; instead of little townships, di- 
vided into farms owned by the farmers, it had large tracts of 
land owned by patroons, and the farmers were only tenants. 
On the other hand, it was also different from the southern 
colonies; the peojile lived closer together, and had more to do 
with one another. The patroon system was not changed 
under the English, and there were some remains of it until 
recent times (^ 429). 



ITBW Tons:. 



43 



102. Peter Stuyvesant. — The last of the Dutch governors 
was Peter Stuyvesant. He was an old soldier who had lost a 
leg in the service of Holland, a brave, obstinate man; the 
English called him '*' old Silver-Leg," and his own Dutch peo- 
ple, " Hard-koppig Piet " (Hard-headed Peter). He had con- 
quered the Swedish 
settlement in Dela- 
ware (§ 22), and had 
tried hard to make 
good the Dutch claim 
to Connecticut. It 
was a bitter blow to 
him when an English 
fleet entered the har- 
bor (1G64), bringing 
a demand for the sur- 
render of the colony. 
Charles II., claiming 
that all this territory 
belonged to England, 
and that the Dutch 
were only intrudersj 
had given it to his 
brother, the Duke of 
York (afterwards 
James II.). The 
Duke had sent out 
Colonel Nichols as 
governor. Stuyve- 
sant raged and 
stormed, but his peo- 
ple were tired of be- Middle Colonies. 

iug ruled by governors from Holland, and he was com- 
pelled to surrender. He lived for some twenty years after 
this, and died at his farm. The " Bouwerie." * 




* Corner of Third Avenue and 13th Street, New York City. 



44 NEW YORK. 

103. New York Colony, — Governor Nichois at once changed 
the n;ime of New Netherlands to New York, and that of New 
Amsterdam to New York (city). The colony was no such im- 
portant place as the State now is. It covered only the narrow 
strip of land on both sides of the Hudson, from New York to 
Albany, and Long Island, Beyond Albany there were a few 
scattered settlements, such as Schenectady, but almost all the 
territory belonged to the Indians or to the French, and could 
hardly yet be considered a part of New York, Until the 
opening of the Erie Canal (§ 358), New York was one of the 
small colonies and States, 

104. New York City. — From Maine to Georgia the At- 
lantic coast of North America is cut off from the interior by 
the Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains, which follow the 
coast line, at a distance of one or two hundred miles from it. 
There is but one natural opening in this long barrier, the 
place whei-e the Hudson Kiver breaks through it, and gives 
easy access from the ocean to Canada and the whole West, 
The first Dutch settlers had therefore picked out for their city 
just the natural gateway for traffic between Europe and the 
AVest, So long as this traffic was nothing more than the fur- 
trade with the Indians, the advantage of the city did not 
amount to so much. But as the population of the colonies 
increased, so did the advantage of the city at the mouth of 
the Hudson River; and, under English rule. New York City 
steadily increased in importance, though it did not become 
the most important of American cities until the opening years 
of this century, 

105. (xovernnient, — The government of the royal colony of 
New York was usually bad, James II, was not willing to 
permit it to have an Assemblv, which was only obtained under 
his successor. The governors were mostly hard-drinking 
gentlemen appointed by the king to please certain English 
families, not to benefit the colony. The rich New York fami- 
lies had altogether too large a share in the government, 
and affairs did not go well. One governor was believed to be 
a partner of the pirates who infested the coast; another 



NEW TORE. 45 

swindled the colony and robbed its treasury; and another 
cheated the people by making them pay illegal fees. 

106. Jacob Leisler. — Bad government in the colony had 
gone so far at the time of the English Revolution (§ 33) that 
the people made one of their own number, Jacob Leisler, gov- 
ernor. He was of a Dutch family, hot-tempered and hasty, 
but he felt, as the people did, the danger from the French 
and Indians, who were attacking such outlying settlements 
as Schenectady, The wealthy colonial families liated him, and 
their opportunity came when a new governor arrived. Leisler 
was not entirely respectful to the new governor; and he was 
tried for treason, convicted, and put to death. This political 
murder had a great influence on the subsequent history of the 
colony: for a long time political parties were usually divided 
into those who had supported or opposed the Leisler govern- 
ment. 

107. Captain Eidd. — The American coast, in those early 
days, was infested by pirates; and they were much in the habit 
of running into New York to sell their captures and get sup- 
plies. Captain Robert (or William) Kidd, a New York ship- 
master, was sent against the pirates by the governor (1G97) and 
was charged with having become a pirate himself. He was 
convicted and hanged; and many persons still believe that he 
buried his booty somewhere near New York. The pirates 
were not suppressed for many years. 

108. The Negro Plot.— At one time (1740) it was believed 
that the negro slaves in New York City had plotted to kill 
the whites and burn their houses. A number of the slaves 
Avere hanged; almost as many were burned; and more were ban- 
ished: but it is now quite certain that no such plot existed. 

109. Growth of the Colony — Bad as the English rule was, 
the colony prospered under it far more than under Dutch rule. 
The peoj^le were left to do their own work in their own way; 
and this made up for a good deal of bad government. Com- 
merce began; ships were built; the population increased; 
New York City began to spread out farther into the country; 
and the outlying settlements grew in number and importance. 



46 NEW JERSEY. 

New York City, Albany (called by tbe Dutch Fort Orange), 
and Kijigston (Esopus), were the principal jilaces. All of 
them were Englisli, and the Church of England had many 
members; but the life of the colony was always greatly influ- 
enced by the peculiar feelings of the original Dutch settlers 
and their descendants. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ii. 264, foil.; iii. 37; Byrant and 
Ga}i,\\. 2-,'9, 247, 319; Ilildreth, \. 136.413, ii. 44, 246; Lodge, 285; 
Roberts; Duniap's Nem York; Riindall's New York; Irving's Knicker- 
bocker; Coffin's Old Times, chap. 30; Paulding'.s Dnfc/i man's Fireside; 
Myers's Yonnq Patroon. {% 101) Bancroft, ii. 279; Ilildreth, i. 142; 
Lodge, 286; Roberta 39. (g 102) Roberts. 68; Abbott'.s Stm/resant. (^ 105) 
Bancroft, iii. 61: Ilildreth. ii. 76, 187, 219. (§ 106) Bancroft, ii. 448; iii. 
51; Ilildreth, ii. 91, 204; R/berts, 203. (§ 107; Roberts, 227; Cooper's Red 
Rover. (§ 108) Ilildreth, ii. 267; Williams, i. 148. (§ Wd) Ilildreth, ii. 512; 
Lamb. 

(2) New Jersey. 

110. Colony of New Jersey. — When the Duke of York took 
possession of New Netherlands (§ lOG), he gave part of it to 
Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Carteret had 
been governor of the island of Jersey, in the English Channel, 
and the new colony was therefore given the name of New 
Jersey. At first it was divided: East Jersey belonged to 
Carteret, and West Jersey to a company of Quakers who had 
bought Berkeley's share. All the proprietors soon gave up 
their rights, and the two parts of New Jersey became one 
royal colony (1702); but until after the Kevolution it was 
often called " the Jerseys." 

111. Settlement. — The principal places were Elizabethtown 
and Newark, which Avere settled by New England people; 
Burlington, a Quaker town; and Perth Amboy, the commer- 
cial town of the colony, which was expected to be a greater 
city than New York. 

112. Government. — The colony liad for many years the 
same governor as New York; but the New York governors 
interfered very little with the Jerseys. In order to attract 
New England settlers, the laws were made much like those of 
New England, and the New England system of self-governing 
towns was followed quite closely. The proprietors aiDpointed 



PENNSYLVANIA. 47 

the governor and the council; but the people elected the As- 
sembly, and were well contented with their share of control 
over law-making. Few of the other colonies had so quiet a 
history as New Jersey. The fourth of the American colleges, 
the College of New Jersey, was established at first at Eliza- 
bethtown (1746), but was soon removed to Princeton, where 
it still remains. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ii. 315; HildretJi, ii. 51, 57, 207; 
Lodge, 363; Syplier aud Apgar's History of New Jersey; Rauni's History 
of New Jersey; Scott's History of New Jersey, 

(3) Feimsylvania. 

113, Penn and the Quakers, — The Quakers had rules of 
conduct peculiar to themselves: they refused to fight, to take 
oaths, or to show particular respect to public men. For these 
reasons, they were considered a disrespectful and disobedient 
people by English magistrates, and were persecuted, A place 
of refuge in America was obtained for them by one of 
their leaders, William Penn, who had great influence at court 
in spite of his being a Quaker. The British Government owed 
his father a debt, and Charles II. paid the debt by giving 
Penn the territory now in the State of Pennsylvania (LGSl). 
Shortly after, Penn bought from the Duke of York that 
part of New Netherlands which is now the State of Delaware, 
and united it with his own colony. 

114, Pennsylvania. — The name Pennsylvania (Penn's 
Woods) was given to the colony by the king, and it was a 
fitting name, for it was Penn's wisdom which turned a forest 
country into a flourishing colony. He bought his land over 
again from the Indians, aud made with them a treaty of peace 
and good-will which was not broken for seventy years. He 
gave the colony an Assembly at once; the laws were to be 
made by this Assembly and a governor appointed by the pro- 
prietor. He gave the people a charter, which permitted 
them to govern themselves in most respects; but there was to 
be no persecution for religious reasons. His descendants, who 
were proprietors after him, were not always as wise as he; and 



48 PENNSTLVANJA. 

the colony often had trouble with them or with the governors 
whom they sent out. But all tliis never checked the love of 
the people for the memory of Willia-m Penn, or their regard 
tor his wisdom, kindness, and consideration for the i)eoi)le. 

115. Philadelphia. — When Penn's grant was made, there 
were some Dutch and Swedish settlers in it, mostly at Ches- 
ter (then called Uplandt). Penn at once sent over a company 
of emigrants, and came over the next year with another. 
His treaty with the Indians was made under a great elm-tree 
by the side of the Delaware Eiver, and here he laid out hie 
capital city, Philadelphia.* The printing-press was intro 
duced ahnost at once, and a high-school (which has since 
grown into the University of Pennsylvania) was established 
within a few years. The city in the early history of our 
country was noted for its cleanliness, order, good government, 
and fine buildings. It was soon the largest and most impor- 
tant place of the whole continent, and retained this first rank 
until early in this century, when New York City at last passed 
it in the race. 

116. Growth of the Colony. — Tiie security and peace of 
the colony attracted to it settlers of every race and of every 
sect. As a general rule, the English kept to the southeast- 
ern part, the Dutch and Germans to the east and northeast, 
and the Scotch and Irish to the central part. The region in 
the west, around Pittslmrgh, was unsettled, and was even 
suj)posed to belong to Virginia (§ 74). All the colonists de- 
pended on agriculture for their prosperity. There were a 
few manufactories, and some little iroii was mined; but the 
great industries of modern Pennsylvania w^re quite luiknown. 
Although Pennsylvania was one of the most prosperous of the 
colonies, it must be remembered, in watching the movements 
of the armies during the Revolution, that Pennsylvania then 
meant only tlie eastern part of the present State: the rest of 
it was a wilderness, for which armies cared nothing. 

• The name, formed from two Greek words, means The City of Brptherlj- Love. 



DELAWARE. 49 

[Supplementary Beading'. — Bancroft, ii. 330, 363 ; iv. 139; Hildreth, 
ii. 62, 172, 186, 206, 243, 320, 466; Lodye, 227 (see also the great num- 
ber of authorities cited on this and the following forty pages); Watson; 
Spark's Pen?i; Johnson, iii. 1144, 1151; Encyc. Brit, xviii. 492; Franklin, 
iii. 109 foil. (§115) Bancroft, ii. 380; Hildreth, ii. 66; Watson, 117; 
Winsor, iii. 482.] 

(4) Delaware. 

117. The Lower Counties. — We have already spoken of the 
Swedish settlement on the Delaware River, of its conquest by 
the Dutch and then by the English (§32). It came to Penn 
by purchase from the Dulce of York, had the same Governor 
as Pennsylvania, and was considered a part of Pennsylvania. 
But it had its separate Assembly, and was always spoken of 
separately as " the three lower counties on the Delaware," 

118. Delaware. — There was so much difference, then, be- 
tween this district and the rest of Pennsylvania, that when 
the Revolution broke out and the new State governments 
were formed, the people of the three lower counties formed a 
State government of their own, at first under the name of 
" the Delaware State," then under that of the State of Dela- 
ware. Its colonial history, however, falls under that of Penn- 
sylvania. 

[Supplementary Beading. — Bancroft, iii. 35; Hildreth, ii. 242 ; and au- 
thorities under Pennsylvania.] 

The Colonies in General. 

119. Colonization Completed. — The period which we have 
been studying covers about one hundred and fifty years, from 
the settlement at Jamestown in 1607 to about the year 1750. 
During these years, the thirteen Englisii colonies in North 
America were settled, and the beginning of a great change in 
the face of the continent was made. In 1607, the Atlantic 
coast was a wilderness, inhabited by only a few savages: in 
1750, it held thirteen colonies, each with a well-ordered gov- 
ernment able to protect its people and secure their comfort. 
Communication between them had also become far easier. 
The early settlers at Jamestown, New Amsterdam, and Plym- 
outh were as far removed from one another as if there had 



50 COLONIAL GOVERNMENTS. 

been an ocean between. 'J'he first Plymouth colonists could 
far better go to Loudon by sea than attempt to reach James- 
town or New Amsterdam by land. The completion of col- 
onization changed all this. A traveller might now go along 
the whole coast, without running any great danger from In- 
dians, wild beasts, or lack of food. George Whitefield, the 
great revivalist preacher, found little difficulty in travelling 
through the whole of the new country, from Georgia to Xew 
England. The spaces of wilderness around the first little 
towns had gradually been filled up, until now the settlements 
of different colonies had begun to touch at the boundaries, 
and there was almost a continuous line of settlements along 
the coast. There was so much communication among them 
that the British Government arranged a post-office system for 
them, though it was terribly slow and uncertain. 

120. The Assemblies. — As we look back on the history 
of these thirteen English colonies, it is easy to see that the 
new feature in government which they introduced was their 
Assemblies. These were the law-making bodies of the col- 
onies, elected by the people, though in some cases, particu- 
larly in the royal colonies, there was another body, the Coun- 
cil, appointed by the king, which took part in making laws. 
These Assemblies were supposed to act by permission of the 
king or the proprietor (§§37, 71); but the real cause for their 
existence was that the colonies were so far from England that 
there was need of some law-making body close at hand and ac- 
quainted with the interests of the colonists, and this was a 
natural and easy way to meet the difficnilty. When the Eng- 
lish Parliament, years afterwards, seized the power of mak- 
ing laws for the colonies, it was naturally the Assemblies that 
resisted (§ 1G"2), and their resistance brought on the Eevolu- 
tion.* 

121. Democracy, — When colonization began in North 



* The first Assembly was in Virginia in 1619 (§ 37). Similar Assemblies began in 
Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay. Connecticut, and other colonies as soon as their set- 
tlement took place, the greatest difficulty in obtaining them being in such royal 
colonies as New York. 



THE OROWTH TOWARD INDEPENDENCE. 61 

America, in other countries the people were not allowed to 
take part in making the laws or in electing those who were to 
make them ; that privilege belonged to persons born in a few 
families, and in most countries the king could say with 
truth, as in France, "lam the State." In the colonies, al- 
most all men obtained the right to vote for members of their 
Assemblies. It was found that this made a wonderful differ- 
ence for tlie better in the nature of the laws and in the feel- 
ings of the people. Laws made by such Assemblies were 
naturally meant to suit as many of the people as possible, and 
not merely to suit a few influential persons or families. Now 
this is what is really meant by Democracy. It does not mean 
that all men are equally wise, or equally rich, or equally 
strong, but that the laws are honestly meant to treat all men 
alike. This democracy, in the form of self-government by 
representatives, was the new political feature brought into 
the world by these American colonies, through these Assem- 
blies; and other countries have adopted it, giving up more 
and more of the principle of government by birth until Great 
Britain, for example, is in many respects as democratic as 
our own country. * 

122. The Grrowth toward Independence. — Under this new 
democratic system, the colonists were beginning to think 
and act differently from those who still lived in England. 
Tiie people of the charter colonies became so used to gov- 
erning themselves that they considered any interference 
with this privilege an unpardonable wrong. Q'hose of the 
proprietary and royal colonies worried their governors very 
much, for they wanted as much liberty of government as had 
been given to the people of the charter colonies. All this 
the king and the governing families of England never could 
understand. They were so used to making laws to suit a few 
privileged persons that it was impossible for them to under- 



* Democracy was by no means perfect in the colonies at first, for many of the 
colonists thought it a dangerous system. Some men were prevented from voting 
because they were not rich enough, or did not belong tea particular church; but 
such features have lon^ since disappeared, 



52 SLAVERY. 

stand the new American system. This made little difference 
for the first hundred and fifty years, for the colonies were 
poor and far off, and the English government did not care 
much about them and allowed them to gain a considerable 
feeling of independence. All this, it will be seen (§152), 
brought difficulty when the English government finally at- 
tempted to interfere with the colonies. It was impossible for 
the king and Parliament to govern a country which they did 
not understand ; and if it had been possible, the colonists had 
become so accustomed to self-government that they would 
never have surrendered it. The real reason for the final 
Revolution was in these changes, and not in mere objections 
to the Stamp Act or Tea tax (§§ 155, 158). 

123. The Growth toward Union. — The increasing differences 
between the mother-country and the colonies had also the ef- 
fect of inclining the latter more and more to united action. 
An effort to form a partial Union had been made by the New 
England colonies (§ 56). Then the Middle Colonies and New 
England began to help one another in their early wars (§ 60), 
as the southern colonies did in theirs (§ 96). In the great 
French war, of which we are to hear next (§ 138), all the colo- 
nies helped one another; and this united them so thoroughly 
that, when the English Government began to interfere 
with their governments, they joined in resisting it (§ 169). 
Democracy, Independence, and Union were thus all parts of 
one another. 

124. Slavery. — Along with democracy came another system, 
absolutely opposed to it, that of negro slavery. V^q first hear 
of it in Virginia, in 1619, the year in which the first Assem- 
bly met, when a British war-vessel exchanged some slaves for 
provisions. All the colonics permitted slavery at first, though 
the slaves increased most j-a})idly in the wanner southern col- 
onies. For many reasons this was a terrible misfortune. (1) 
It brought in a system which was hostile to all the other ten- 
dencies of the country; and a four years' desperate war be- 
tween the two sections of the country was finally necessary to 
decide whether slavery or democracy was to have the suprem- 



WEALTB. 53 

acy (§ 503). (2) It brought two different races of men into 
the same country, the strong and energetic white race (§ 1) 
and the weak and ignorant negro race. Wherever this has 
happened in other lands, the stronger race has been tempted 
into keeping the weaker under some sort of subjec-tion; and 
even now thiit slavery is abolished, our country still has to 
meet a difficulty which no other country has ever met suc- 
cessfully : that of keeping two such races separate in the same 
country and yet on equal terms. (3) Wherever there was 
slavery it had the worst effect on labor, which is the most im- 
portant thing in a state. If laborers are generally slaves, no 
free man likes to labor, for that will seem to bring him down 
to the level of the slave. For all these reasons, as well as from 
the cruelty of the system of slavery, its introduction was a 
terrible misfortune. 

125. Population. — By the time colonization had been com- 
pleted, about 1750, the population of the colonies had in- 
creased to about 1,300,000, It grew more rapidly here than 
in other countries, and all these people considered them- 
selves Englishmen and were very proud of the name. Most 
of them had never seen the king, but all took great pride in 
being his subjects. One might think that the King of Great 
Britain would have seen how fair a chance he had of becom- 
ing more powerful than the other kings of Europe, having 
this new and fast-growing kingdom across the Atlantic. 

126. Wealth. — The colonies were no longer such poor and 
struggling communities as had settled at first at Jamestown 
and Plymouth. Their people grew tobacco, rice, indigo, and 
other products, which the people of Great Britain were glad 
to take and pay for with their own manufactures. A great 
trade with these colonies had thus grown up, and it made 
both Great Britain and the colonies richer. The colonies 
were now so much richer and stronger that they were able to 
vote money, ships, and men to help the king in his wars. 
And all this increase of wealth and power had cost England or 
the king hardly anything. The only colony which had ever 



64 TBB HOME GOVERNMENT. 

received help in money from tlie British Government was 
Georgia, the weakest of all. 

127. The Board of Trade.— Unfortunately, the King of Eng- 
land never considered the colonies as his kingdom, but only 
as his colonies. At that time, a colony was considered by the 
governments of Europe as only a place for trade, with no right 
to govern itself ; and the monopoly of its trade belonged to 
the mother-country — that is, the colony was not permitted to 
have any direct trade with any other country. This was the 
reason of the Navigation Acts (§ 57). The British Government 
had formed a Board of Trade, composed of officials who were 
to watch the colonies and see that they obeyed these Acts. 
This Board found its task continually growing more difficult 
as the colonies grew richer; and at the same time the colonies 
found the Navigation Acts continually becoming more annoy- 
ing to them. But they had as yet no thoughts of declaring 
their independence. 

128. The Home Grovernment. — The annoyances which were 
kept up by the Board of Ti'ade and the royal governors were 
the result of the fact that the king and the leading men of 
England never understood the colonies or their people (§ 122) : 
they were more alarmed than pleased at the growth of the 
colonies, lest the colonies should learn to unite and form a 
government of their own. Instead of studying the new coun- 
try, and trying to arrange everything so that its people would 
always be glad to remain Englishmen, they were continually 
doing things which only annoyed the colonies but did not 
clieck their growth. A father who neither likes nor under- 
stands his son must find his family government becoming 
more troublesome as the son becomes too old and strong to be 
forced to obey; and this was the main reason for the troubles 
of the years following the close of this period, until parent 
and child agreed to live apart. 

129. Chronological Summary. — The following summary 
gives the colonies in the order of their founding, and the 
leading events in the history of each : 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. 65 

1606 : English colonization begun § 20 

1607 : Virginia first settled at Jamestown 24 

1619 : First legislative Assembly 71 

Slavery first introduced 124 

1623 : Indian massacre 72 

1624 : Virginia becomes a royal colony 71 

1676 : Bacon's Rebellion 73 

1692 : William and Mary College founded 70 

1614: New York (New Netherlands) : settlement begun by Dutch 

traders 21 

1623 : New York City (New Amsterdam) settled 21 

1664 : Conquered by the English 102 

1691 : Leisler's execution 106 

Assembly granted 105 

1740 : Negro plot 108 

1620 : Massachusetts first settled at Plymouth 34 

1628 : Massachusetts charter granted 38 

1630 : Massachusetts Company transferred to America. . . 39 

1637 : Harvard College founded 65 

1691 : The two colonies united 44 

1692 : The Salem witchcraft delusion 43 

1623 : New Hampshire first settled at Dover and Portsmouth 45 

1629 : New Hampshire set off from Maine 45 

1641 : Became part of Massachusetts 45 

1691 : Became a royal colony 45 

1634 : Maryland first settled at St. Mary's 76 

1635 : Legislative Assembly granted 77 

1683 : Annapolis founded 76 

1692 : Toleration ceased 78 

1729 : Baltimore founded 76 

1763 : Mason and Dixon's line fixed 79 

1634-36 : Connecticut first settled at Wethersfield, Windsor, and 

Hartford 46 

1635 : Saybrook settled 47 

1637 : Pequot War 48 

1638 : New Haven settled 49 

1639 : Constitution adopted 46 

1665 : The colonies united 50 

1687 : The charter-oak incident 51 

1700 : Yale College founded 65 

1636 : Rhode Island first settled at Providence 52 

1644 : The plantations united 53 

1663 : Charter granted 53 

1638 : Delaware first settled by Swedes 22 

1655 : Conquered by the Dutch 22 

1664 : Conquered by the English 102 

1682: SoldtoPenn 113 

703 : Became a separate colony 117 

1643 : The New England Union formed 56 

1651 : The Navigation Acts begun 57 

1663 : North Carolina first settled at Albemarle 83 

1711 : Tuscarora War 97 



66 FRENCH SETTLEMENTS. 

1729 : North Carolina becomes a royul colony .§ 82 

1771 : Tryon's battle witli the regulators 85 

1664 : New Jersey tirst settled at Elizabethtowii Ill 

1702: Becomes a royal colony 110 

1738 : Becomes a separate colony 112 

1746 : Princeton College founded 112 

1670 : South Carolina tirst settled at Old Charleston 86 

1680 : Charleston settled 86 

1706 : Spanish attack on Charleston 96 

1729 : South Carolina becomes a royal colony 82 

1675 : King Philip's War begun 58 

1681 ; Pennsylvania tirst settled near Philadelphia 115 

1683: Philadelphia founded 115 

1686 : The Andros Ooveijiment begun 59 

1702 : Queen Anne's War begun 60 

1710 : Port Royal (Annapolis) taken 60 

1713 : Queen Anne's War ended 60 

1733 : Georgia tirst settled at Savannah 92 

1740 : The Spanish War 96 

1752 : Georgia became a royal colony 93 

1744 : King George's War begun 60 

1745 : Louisburgh captured 60 

1748 : King George's War ended 60 



PERIOD IV.— COLONIAL HISTORY. 

(1750-1763.) 

(1) The French Settlements. 

130. The English Territory. — Though the English claims 
through the discoveries of the Cubots (§ 10) covered all the 
territory westward to the Pacific Ocean, yet the territory 
actually settled when colonization was completed was only the 
strip of land between the Alleghany Mountains and the 
Atlantic Ocean. But population had already begun to fill 
this strip, and was now ready to pass over the AUeghanies. 
This was to be the beginning of a thirteen years' struggle 
with the French for the' valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi 
(1750-63). 

131. The French Territory. — The French, passing down 
from Canada, had explored and claimed all the territory 
between the AUeghanies and the Mississippi River, calling it 



THE FRENCH FORTS. 57 

New France, They meant to hem the English into a small 
territory, while the French colonies should have room to 
become powerful and prosperous. 

132. The French Explorers. — The wanderings and adven- 
tures of the Frenchmen who did the work of exploring this 
territory make a wonderful story. The first to explore west- 
ern Canada and northern New York was Cham plain; Lake 
Champlain is named after him. Other explorers went farther 
than he, the most enterprising being French missionaries to 
the Indians. One of them, Marquette, with a tradei- named 
Joliet, found the upper Mississippi, and sailed down that 
river to about the place where De Soto had crossed it (§ 8), A 
few years afterward. La Salle sailed down the Mississippi to 
its mouth. For some time the French had been establishing 
trading and missionary stations in what are now our North- 
western States. The most important one, Detroit, was founded 
in 1701, 

133. The French in the Southwest. — The French were anx- 
ious to get control of the country around the mouth of the 
Mississippi, and their first permanent colony was fixed at Mo- 
bile (1702). Soon afterward a company was formed, and 
made a settlement at New Orleans, which became almost at 
once the principal place of the Mississippi Valley. These 
French settlers at the mouth of the Mississippi were thus 
separated from their brethren in Canada by a long stretch of 
wilderness, whose only inhabitants were Indians and a few 
French fur-traders and hunters.* 

134. The French Forts. — To connect the two parts of their 
American possessions, the French had built a chain of some 
sixty forts from New Orleans to Montreal, many of which 
have since become important towns. The present cities of 
New Orleans, Natchez, Vincennes, Fort Wayne, Toledo, 
Detroit, Ogdensburgh, and Montreal are near enough to the 
sites of some of these old forts to show the general course of 
the chain. Back of it, toward the Mississippi and the great 

* New Orleans and the country around it still have very many traces of the early 
settlement by the French. 



58 



THE FRENCH COLONIES. 




lakes, were 
other forts, as 
at Kaskaskia, 
Mackinaw, and 
Peoria. 
136. The French Colonies. —The 
English colonies had grown far 
more rapidly than the French, 
and had about fifteen times as 
large a population as the French 
colonies at the beginning of this 
period. The cause of tins differ- 
ence in growth was that the 
French colonies were governed 
too much; their officials were 
sent out from France, and, think- 
ing that they knew what was best 
for the colonies, interfered with 
the colonists continually. Besides, 
many of these officials were not 
honest, and plundered the colo- 
given toIhorapToxSerSn'o! nists Under pretencc of taxing 

old Forts. 



WASHINGTON'S MISSION: 



59 



them. Thus work was discouraged at every step, and the 
French colonies never became prosperous or populous. 

136. The Ohio Company. — As soon as it became evident 
that English settlement was about to pass beyond the AUe- 
ghanies, a number of Virginians and London merchants 
formed the Ohio Company (1749), to buy up western lands. 
Its land lay in western Pennsylvania, which was then claimed 
by Virginia (§ 74:). Tlie company at once sent out surveyors 
and traders, and began opening roads for emigrants. 

137. Washington's Mission.— The French took the alarm at 
once at the Ohio Company's preparations, and sent men from , 
Canada to buikl a new chain of forts, from the place where 
Erie now stands southward to the Ohio River, in order to 
stop the advance of the English. George Washington was 
then (1753) a Virginia land- 
surveyor, not yet twenty- 
two years old, but already 
known for his 
prudence and 
clearheadedness ; 




nnd Governor Din- 
widdle, of Virginia 
(§ 74), sent him to 
remonstrate with the French 
who were building the new 
forts. He made his way 
through the wintry wilder- 
ness up the Potomac River 
to the Monongahela, down that river to its junction with the 
Alleghany, and up the Alleghany until he met the French 
commander. That officer refused to quit the disputed terri- 
tory, and Washington returned with what was really a declara- 
tion of war. 



The French War. 



60 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 

[Supplementary Reading.— J^rr/jcTO/i, iii. 118, 190, 344 ; iv. 42 \ Eil- 
dreth, ii. 99, 2J0, '281, 438; Gilman, 185; Bryant and Gay, ii. 499; iii. 
254; Parkman'sPw«ee?'s of France, Jemits in North America, and Dk- 
covery of the NortMoext; Ridpath, 247. (g 132; Sparks'.s Marquette: Win- 
sor. iv. 103, 163. 263; v. 1; Bancroft, iii. 152; Hildreth, ii. 99, 113, 226. 
(§ 134) Hildreth. ii. 434. (§ 135) Winwr, v. 60. (gg 136-7) Bancroft, iii. 
344; Hildreth, ii. 433; Lodge. 30; Ridpath, 252; Winsoi', v. 492.] 



(2) The French AND Indian War: 1754-17G0. 

138. The War on the Frontier. — For about seven years after 
Wasliingtcu's mission, the colonies were engaged in the most 
destructive war tliat had yet been known in America, the 
French and Indian War. It raged all along the frontier, from 
Virginia to Maine, beginning with the surrender of Washing- 
ton and a few Virginia troops, in 1754, at Fort Necessity, near 
the French Fort Duquesne Ydu'-lidne] (the present city of 
Pittsburgh), and ending with the capture of Quebec and the 
conquest of all Canada from the French (17G0). It was this 
war which reall}'^ united the colonies into one people. 

139. The Albany Plan of Union. — The colonies north of 
Virginia sent delegates to a meeting at Albany (1754), where 
Franklin (§ 172) proposed a plan of uniting all the colonies 
under one government. The delegates approved it. But the 
Albany plan looked so much like an independent government 
that the British Government refused to agree to it; and it 
gave the king so much power that the colonies would not 
accept it. It was, however, another sign of approaching 
union. 

140. The First Three Years For three years (1755, 175G, 

1757) the war went badly for the Fnglish. Even before war 
was openly declared, the first English commander, Braddock, 
was defeated and killed by a small force of French and In- 
dians, near Fort Duquesne; and his army was only saved from 
destruction by the Virginians, under Washington, Avho covered 
the retreat. Acadia was taken from the French and i-enamed 
Nova Scotia; and the English officers treacherously seized the 
French settlers and sent them as exiles to the English colo- 
nies. An English force, under Sir AVilliam Johnson, defeated 



FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 61 

a French army near Lake George, but did nothing further. 
The English generals were mostly worthless men, while the 
French were under command of a great soldier, Montcalm, 
who used liis smaller forces so well that he kept his enemies 
out of all the disputed territory. 

141. The Year 1758. — Everything was changed Avhen one 
of the greatest of Englishmen, William Pitt, came to the head 
of the British Government. He sent out capable men as 
generals, and brought all the force of the colonies into the 
war. The armies were thrown upon the French at three 
points and almost at the same time. (1) A sea expedition 
captured Louisburgh (§ 61). (2) A land expedition took 
Fort Duquesne, without resistance, and renamed it Fort Pitt 
(now Pittsburgh). (3) The only failure of the year was a 
bloody assault on Ticonderoga, which was rejiulsed by Mont- 
calm's skill and care. 

142. The Year 1759. — The next year brought even greater 
success. It was known that the English meant to attack 
Quebec from Louisburgh; and Montcalm was forced to gather 
all his forces to defend that city. Consequentl}^ Ticonderoga 
and the other French forts were abandoned, and the colonies 
no longer felt the former terrors of the border war. The 
English from Louisburgh, under General "Wolfe, sailed up the 
St. Lawrence Kiver to attack Quebec; but they found it im- 
possible at first to reach their enemy. The fortifications of 
Quebec were on the summit of lofty cliffs I'ising straight from 
the river-bank, and Montcalm was not to be tempted out of 
this stronghold. After a siege of three months, the English 
were much discouraged, and Wolfe decided as a last resort to 
climb the cliffs and find the enemy. 

143. Capture of Quebec— Choosing a dark night, Wolfe 
landed his army in boats on the narrow river beach at the 
foot of the cliffs. The men succeeded in- clambering up the 
precipice, which the French had not taken the trouble to 
guard: the sailors dragged up some small cannon with them; 
and in the morning the English were drawn up on the Plains 
of Abraham, by the side of the upper city. The French army 



62 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 

moved out to meet them, and was completely defeated in the 
battle which followed. Both Montcalm and Wolfe died ot 
their wounds.* Tlie city surrendered five days after the battle. 

144. Conquest of Canada. — The surrender of Quebec put 
an end to French control of Canada, for most of the French 
forces had been gathered there. Montreal and other French 
posts surrendered as rapidly as English troops could be sent 
against them; and the French dominion in Xorth America 
gave place to that of the Etiglish (1760), 

145. The League of Pontiac. — JSIany of the Indians disliked 
to see the newcomers, and Pontiac, an Ottawa chief who lived 
near Detroit, formed a league to destroy them (1763). A 
friendly Indian betrayed it; the attack on the English gar- 
rison of Detroit was beaten back, and the Indians begged for 
peace. Tliis was the last great Indian revolt. 

146. The Peace of Paris. — The war lasted for some three 
years after the conquest of Canada, but the colonies had little 
to do with it. Spain had come to the help of France; and, 
when England had overthrown both of them, a treaty of 
peace was signed at Paris in 1763. Spain and France sur- 
rendered to England all of North America east of the Mis- 
sissippi River, Spain giving up Florida, and France the rest. 
France tlius retired from North America, leaving to Spain all 
the territory west of the Mississippi River, with the city of 
New Orleans, f The Mississippi River was thus the main 
boundary between the Spanish and English possessions in 
America. 

147. Louisiana. — Spain gave the name of Louisiana to her 
North American possessions, covering, in general, the great 
region between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi 
River, from British America to the Gulf of IMexico (§ 301). 
The name Louisiana is'now confined to the first State ad- 
mitted from this territory. 

* Both generals lived long enough to know the result of the battle. Wolfe, 
when told of it, said, "Then I die happy." Montcalm, when told that his wounds 
were fatal, said, " So much the better; 1 shall not live to see the surrender of 
Quebec." 

t Many of tbe French crossed the rjver and settled the new city of St. Louis. 



GROWTH OF THE COLONIES. 63 

148. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of the 
war are as follows: 

1754: Surrender of Fort Necessity § 138 

Albany Plan of Union 139 

1755: Braddock's defeat 140 

Conquest of Nova Scotia 140 

Battle of Lake George 140 

1756: Formal declaration of war 140 

1758: Pitt becomes head of the British Government 141 

Capture of Louisburgh 141 

Capture of Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) 141 

Battle of Ticonderoga 141 

1759: Capture of Quebec 143 

1760: Conquest of Canada 144 

1763: Conspiracy of Pontiac 145 

Peace of Paris 146 

[Supplementary Beading: Bancroft, iv. ; Hildreth, ii. ; Lodpe, 30; 
Bryant and Gay, iii. 254; Chalmers, ii. 252; Gilman, 185; Kidpath, 
245; Winsor, v. 407, 483. (§ 139) Franklin, iii. 22; Trumbull's Con- 
necticut, ii. 355; Preston's 2)(?CM?«e« is, 170; Frothingham, 136; Byrant 
and Gay, iii. 261; Hildretli, ii. 443; Bancroft, iv. 123. (^^ -i 40) Bancroft, 
iv. 184, 193, 210; Hildreth, ii. 457, 474; Winsor, v. 495; Longfellow's 
Evangeline; Harper s Mug., June and November, 1882; Cooper's Zrtsio/ 
the Mohicans. (§ 141) Bancroft, iv. 275. 295, 324, 358; Hildreth, ii. 48U; 
Bryant and Gay, iii. 296; Winsoi\ v. 540; Parkman's Montcalm and 
Wolfe. (§142) Bancroft, v. 110; Hildreth, ii. 504; Parkman's Conspiracy 
of Pontiac; Cooley's Michigan, 40. (§ 14^) Bancroft, iv. 452; Hildreth, 
ii. 502; Bryant and Gay, iii. 312; Green's Larger Hist., §g 1457, 1458, 
1479; Frothingham, 101.] 



(3) Results of the Wak. 

149. Growth of the Colonies. — The population of the 
colonies was now about 2,000,000 (1763: see § 98). The 
wealth of the colonies was increasing as rapidly; and the 
country east of the Alleghanies began to look like an old and 
well-settled country. American ships were becoming more 
numerous on the ocean, trading even with countries with 
which trade had been forbidden by the Navigation Acts 
(§ 57). Americans had fought beside British regulars, and 
had sometimes held their ground while the regulars were run- 
ning away (§ 140). American privateers (§ 216) in the recent 
war had been more numerous than the whole British navy 
had been when emigration to America began. No single one 



64 ■ TAXATION AND REPRESENTATION 

of the thirteen colonies was very powerful ; but it was more 
evident that all the colonies together were now quite a strong 
people. 

150. Growth of Union, — The next event was to be a strug:- 
gle between the English colonies and the mother-country, 
which had together overthi-own the French in Canada. The 
war had united the colonies in very many of their feelings. It 
should have been evident that they would unite against any 
new enemy, even against England, as they had done against 
the French: and it was necessary that the British Government 
should be very wise and prudent, so that it should not appear 
to be their enemy. 

161. The British Oovernment. — Most people in England 
had known very little about the colonies ; and now they heard 
with great surprise that these colonies were no longer a wilder- 
ness, that they had thriving towns and colleges and printing- 
presses, that they were supporting armies and a navy and were 
able to vote large amounts of money for carrying on war. It 
was like the sudden rising of a new country out of the ocean. 
But the first thought of the British Government was that this 
was a capital field for new taxation. 

152. Taxation. — The English debt had grown to be very 
large, and the taxes which paid the interest on it were very 
heavy. The English Parliament (§ 30) had iiad great difficulty 
in arranging taxation to meet the new expenses growing out 
of the war, and it began to think seriously of providing for 
part of them by laying taxes on the colonies. The excuse for 
such a measure was that the war had been undertaken in de- 
fence of the colonies, in order to drive the French out of the 
Ohio Valley. 

153. Taxation and Representation. — Men have always found 
it difficult to arrange systems which would give them good 
government: and most of the reasons for this difficulty are in 
this matter of taxation. AVhen the power of taxation is given 
to any part of a government, it must be given altogether: the 
taxing body must decide how heavy the taxes shall be. When 
those who are taxed have the privilege of voting for members 



COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 65 

of the taxing body, they are able to try, at least, to change 
the taxing body, if it makes taxes too heavy. For this reason, 
the colonists had never objected to being taxed by their own 
Assemblies (§ 37). But when those who are taxed have no 
representatives in the taxing body, as the colonists had no 
representatives in Parliament, they had no real power to do 
anything more than beg that taxes be not made too heavy. 
" Taxation without representation" would really mean that 
those who are taxed hold all their property at the mercy of 
the taxing body. There were countless other evils, too, grow- 
ing out of taxation without representation, which would take 
too much space for the telling, but which the colonists were 
quick to foresee. They were wise enough to see that, if they 
allowed Parliament to lay the smallest tax on them, they 
really gave Parliament all power, and they were determined 
enough to resist. The next twelve years, then, is the story of 
colonial resistance to taxation without representation. 

[Supplementary Reading: — Bancroft, v. 286; Hildreth, ii. 515; Bryant 
and Oay, iii. 329; Winsor, vi. 15; Frothingham, 101; Green's Larger 
EM., sec. 1489; Lodge, 476; Preston, 189; Pitkin, i. 199; Green, 52. J 



PERIOD v.— COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 

(1763-1775.) 

(1) Taxation without Eepresentation". 

154. The Navigation Acts. — The first step of the British 

Government was to enforce the Navigation Acts (§57), which 
had fallen into neglect. American vessels and goods brought 
from foreign countries were seized ; and the large American 
trade was thrown into confusion, English officers demanded 
** writs of assistance " from American courts, and these writs 
gave them the power to search private houses for smuggled 
goods. All this made the colonists very uncomfortable, but 
they saw no way of resisting it„ 

156. The- Stamp Act. — ^It was different, however, when 



66 COLONIAL RESTSTANCE. 

Parliament in 1765 passed the Stamp Act,* the first attempt to 
tax the colonies. The Assemblies (§ 153), as fast as they met, 
declared that Parliament had no right to tax the colonies. 
Able and eloquent men, like James Otis, of Massachusetts, 
and Patrick Henry, of Virginia, led the Assemblies, and raised 
the feeling of the people so high that those who were to have 
sold the stamps were frightened out of the business, and thus 
the Stamp Act remained unenforced. The strongest sign of 
united resistance was the meeting of the Stamp Act Congress, 
at New York, composed of delegates sent by nine of the colo- 
nies (1TG5). It declared in plain terms that the right to tax 
the colonies was in their representatives alone. Parliament 
repealed the Stamp Act the next year, declaring, however, 
that it still claimed the right to tax the colonies if it pleased. 

156. Taxes on Commerce. — Parliament thought that the 
colonists would have less objectio7i to taxes levied on articles 
imported into America. The year after the repeal of the 
Stamp Act another act was passed, imposing taxes on tea and 
a few other articles whenever they were imported into the 
colonies. It was believed that the agents who were to collect 
these taxes could not be frightened away from their work as 
the agents for selling stamps had been, for they were to live in 
the large towns on the coast, where the British naval officers 
could protect them. The colonists found another way by 
which to defeat this act. They made a general agreement not 
to buy, sell, or use the articles which had been taxed : no 
taxes were paid, for the taxed articles were no longer im- 
ported. 

157. The Six Years' Striig-^le, — The colonists kept up this 
form of resistance for about six years (1767-1773). It did not 
come to open war; but it made the colonists every year less 
anxious to be called Englishmen, — that is, it made them less 
loyal to England. In England, those who supported the king 

* The objection of the colonists was to the tax. not to the way of collecting it, 
for a stamp tax is an easy way of levying taxes, and has been used without objec- 
tion by Congress. The tax is laid on an article, such as a bank check. Then he 
who makes the article buys a stamp which he puts on it from the government 
agents, and thus helps to collect the tax himself. 



COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 67 

were commonly called Tories, and those who opposed him were 
known as Whigs. So those Americans who supported the 
colonies took the name of Whigs, and gave that of Tories to their 
neighbors who remained loyal to Great Britain. There were 
some cases of violence. The ill-feeling between the people of 
Boston and the British troops quartered there led to a street- 
fight called the " Boston Massacre," in which several persons 
were killed (1770). A number of Rhode Island people seized 
a British vessel, the Gaspee, by surprise, and burned her. In 
all the colonies in which the governors were not elected by 
the peo^jle, the Assemblies were quarrelling more or less with 
their governors. Every one was uneasy, for Parliament seemed 
to be desirous of punishing some one, if it could see a way to 
do so; audit was evident that the colonists would resist any 
such attempt by force. 

158. The Tea Tax. — Parliament tried to quiet the Ameri- 
can feeling by taking oS. all the taxes except that of three 
pence per pound on tea (1770) ; but the colonists resisted this, 
as containing the p7i.7iciple of taxation without representation 
(§ 153), Then Parliament made its last effort. It passed an 
Act (1773) allowing English tea merchants to pay the tax in 
England, export the tea to America, and then get the tax 
back from the government. The colonists would thus get 
the tea as cheaply as in England, for no tax had really been 
paid: it would only seem to be paid. 

159. The Boston Tea-Party. — When the cargoes of tea ar- 
rived, the people of New York, Philadelphia, and other coast 
towns did not allow them to be lauded, but sent them back. 
The iiing'j officers at Boston would not permit the tea-vessels 
to leave the harbor; and a number of persons, disguised as 
Indians, boarded the vessels and threw the tea into the harbor 
(1773). Thus, in various ways, the tea was prevented from 
getting into the colonies, and Parliament was again defeated. 

160. The Intolerable Acts.— The " Boston Tea-Party " gave 
Parliament at last an enemy whom it could punish. Acts 
were passed at once to forbid ships entering or leaving Boston 
harbor so as to ruin Boston's trade; to change the charter of 



68 COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 

Massachusetts so as to take away the power of the people over 
their government ; to send American offenders to England 
for trial; and to prevent Americans from settling the western 
territory which had been conquered from the French. Now 
these were Acts which the colonists could not resist as peace- 
ably as they had done in other cases: they must resist by force, 
and that would be nothing less than war. And they could 
not help resisting, particularly the Act changing the govern- 
ment of Massachusetts. That colony had a charter, which 
secured to it the right of self-government (§ 29). If Parlia- 
ment were permitted to change the charter of Massachusetts 
as it pleased, much more could it change the governments of 
colonies whicli had no other charters; and so no colony Avas 
safe. 

161. Legislation aud Representation. — The first idea of the 
colonists, and of their friends in England, had been that while 
Parliament had no right to tax the colonies (§ 153), it had a 
right to make laws for them in other matters. The Acts just 
spoken of put an end to this opinion, for if Parliament could 
make laws for the colonies, it could make laws, as it had done, 
to punish them for refusing to submit to taxation. From this 
time, then, the Americans resisted " legislation without rep- 
resentation ; " that is, they held that Parliament, without 
American representatives, had no right to make any laws for 
the colonies, and that they were justified in resisting any such 
laws, even by force. 

162. First Continental Congress. — The Assemblies in the 
different colonies passed resolutions condemning Parlia- 
ment so severely that the governors dismissed them; and 
many of the colonies were thus left without any real govern- 
ments. The call for another Congress (§ 155) was general, and 
it met at Philadelphia (1774). It is commonly called the First 
Continental Congress, meaning the first general Congress from 
all the colonies of the continent. Its main work was to draw 
up Articles of Association, to be signed by the people of the 
whole country, binding them not to buy, sell, or use English 
goods until the objectionable Acts should be repealed. It 



COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 69 

also promised the support of all the colonies to Massachusetts, 
and called another Congress for the following spring. 

163. Suspension of GrOTernment. — By this time there was 
general confusion in the governments to which the colonies 
had been accustomed. In New England, General Gage had 
been appointed Governor of Massachusetts, and he held 
Boston with a British garrison; but the towns did most of 
the work of government without much attention to their 
former rulers. In most of the colonies, the royal governors 
attempted to stop those parts of the colonial governments 
which were elected by the people. When these were stopped, 
the people had very little respect for what was left of the gov- 
ernments, and no one knew whom to obey. Government was 
left to committees, called Committees of Correspondence, who 
acted by common consent; and these were busy collecting 
arms and military supplies, and getting ready for open war, 
if it should come. It was most probable that the first conflict 
would come in Massachusetts, if Gage should attempt to en- 
force the Acts of Parliament against the colony; and the 
Massachusetts people had formed themselves into " minute- 
men," pledged to be ready for a battle at a minute's notice. 

[Supplementary Eeading. — From this poiut until the close of the 
Revoliitiou, only brief and general references ■will be given under each 
section, for Wiusor's Reader's Hand-Book of the RevolvHon will give the 
pupil all necessary guidance to special references Consult the index 
to Winsor, under the subject for which references are needed. (§ 154) 
Bancroft, Y. 91; FrothingJiam, '[hS; Hildreth, \\. 499 Bryant and Oay, 
iii. 329, 351; Winsor, vi. 23. (§155) Bancroft, v. 243. 269, 308 foil.; 
Frothingliam, 175; Hildretli, ii. 524; Winsor, \. 29, Ridj'ath, 2b9; Niles, 
451; Pitkin, i. 170; Lodge, 476. (§156) Ilildreth, ii. 538; Gxnnn's, Larger 
Hist., sec. 1500; Green, 53. (§157) Winsor, vi. 43, 49; Ilildreth, ii. 
554, 561; Ridpath, 293. (§ 158) Bancroft, vi. 352; Frothingham, 296; Hil- 
dreth, ii. 556; iii. 25. (§ 159) Bancroft, vi. 465; Hildreth, iii. 26; Winso?-, 
vi. 91. (% 160) Bancroft, vi. 511, 525; Hildreth, Hi. 32. (§161)5a?i- 
croft, vii. 126; Hildreth, iii. 34, 42; Green's Larger Hist., sec. 1508; 
Greene, 78 ; Frothingham, 335.] 

(2) Lexington" and Concoed: 1775. 

164. Enforcement of the Acts. — Until this time the colo- 
nists had been able to make peaceable resistance ; frightening 



70 



COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 



stamp-officers, refusing to buy tea or English goods, or even 
throwing tea overboard, were proceedings which the British 
Government did not like but could not easily find a way of 
punishing. Matters had now come to a point where peace- 
able resistance was no longer possible. If Gage was Governor 
of Massachusetts under the new Acts of Parliament, it was 
his business to take care that no preparations for war were 
begun in his colony. When, therefore, he heard that military 
stores had been collected at Concord, a village about twenty 
miles from Boston, he ordered out 800 men to destroy them. 
If the Massachusetts people alloAved this to be done, it meant 
that they submitted to the new Acts of Parliament. If they 
resisted, it must be by force; that is, by war. 

165. Lexiugton and Concord. — The march of the British was 
begun about midnight April 18-19, 1775, and just before day- 
break they entered the 
village of Lexington. 
Warning of their march 
had been sent out from 
Boston, and they found 
some sixty half-armed minute-men 
drawn up on the village green. A 
volley from the British killed several 
of the minute-men and scattered the 
rest. This was but a little battle in 
itself; but it meant tiiat the end had 
come, that England and her colonies were now to be separated 
by war, and that a new nation, with new ways of thinking 
and acting, was born. Pushing on to Concord, tlie British 
destroyed the stores there, and began their retreat to Boston. 
It was time: messengers were riding through the country 
around; the church-bell« Avere ringing the alarm; and the 
minute-men were gathering on the road between the British 
and Boston. 

166. The British Retreat. — Wlien the retreat began, the 
soldiers Avere fired on from every fence and rock along the 
road. For a time they fired back steadily; then they broke 





Lexington and Concord. 



OOLOmAL RESISTANCE. 71 

iuto a run, chased by the Massachusetts men. When another 
British force met them at Lexington, they lay down in the 
road and panted, " their tongues hanging out of their mouths 
like dogs after a chase." The retreat was begun again, and 
the Americans kept up the pursuit until the tired soldiers 
found refuge under the guns of the Britisli ships of war at 
Boston. 

167. The Siege of Boston. — So many of the minute-men 
remained in front of Boston that the British were shut up in 
the town. As the news spread through New England, men 
left their farms and hurried to join in the siege of Boston. 
Ships still sailed into the harbor; but all the country around 
was now an enemy's country to the British. The Eevolution 
had begun, and with it the history of the United States. 



[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, vii. 288; Hildreih, iii. 67; Bry- 
ant and Gay, iii. 377; Dawson, i. 26; Moore's Diary, 1. 63; Frothing- 
bam's Siege of Boston, 70; Everett, i. 73; Atlantic, June, 1875; ifo?-- 
per's Mag.,'^l?iy, 1865; 0. W. Hohncs's Lexington; Lougfellow's Pa«^ 
Revere's Ride. The account wilh the greatest number of authorities is 
in Winsoi', vi. 123, 174.] 



168. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this 
twelve years' struggle (1763-1775) are as follows: 



1763-66: Internal Taxation §152 

1764: Parliament claims the right to tax the colonies 152 

1765: The Stamp Act passed 155 

Stamp- Act Congress 155 

1766: The Stamp Act repealed 155 

1767-73: Commercial Taxation 156 

1767: Parliament lays taxes on commerce 156 

The Americans stop using the taxed articles 156 

1768: Boston occupied by British troops 157 

1770: The Boston massacre 157 

The taxes removed, except that on tea 158 

1772: Burning of the Qaspee 157 

1773: Tea sent to America 158 

The colonists refuse to receive it 159 

The Boston Tea-Party 159 



72 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. 

1774-65: Legislation §160 

1774: Parliament passes Acts to punish the colonies 160 

First Continental Congress 163 

Articles of Association 1 62 

1775: War 164 

1775: Lexington and Concord fights 165 

The Siege of Boston 167 

Beginning of the American Revolution 167 



HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE REVOLUTION: 1775-81. 

169. Rise of the Republic— The history of the United 
States as a separate country begins with the fight at Lexing- 
ton, though the name of the United Colonies was kept up for 
more than a year (§ 185). The Americans still considered the 
King of England as their king, and believed that they were 
fighting against the attempt of Parliament to govern them by 
its own will. When they at last found that the king was 
altogether on the side of their enemies, they rebelled against 
him too, and made their country an independent country. 

170. The Colonial Governments. — Almost all of the colonial 
governments went to pieces at the outbreak of war. The 
royal governors, judges, and other oflficials ran away, and 
took refuge on British ships of war or in towns where there 
were British soldiers. The former Assemblies came together, 
calling themselves provincial congresses, and acted for a time 
as colonial governments. 

171. The Second Continental Congress. — Soon after the 
fights at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental 
Congress (§ 163) met at Philadelphia (1775). Each colony 
had sent its ablest men as delegates. Among the delegates 
from Massachusetts were John Adams, afterwards President, 
Samuel Adams, a trusted leader of the people, and John Hau- 

73 



74 THE REVOLUTION. [1775 

cock, a Boston merchant, whose bold signature heads the list 
of signers of the Declaration of Independence. New York 
sent John Jay, afterwards chief justice. Pennsylvania sent 
Robert Morris, afterwards the skilful manager of the money 
affairs of the new people, and Benjamin Franklin. Virginia 
sent Patrick Henry, the most eloquent man of his time, 
Thomas Jefferson, who afterwards wrote the Declaration of 
Independence, and George Wasliington. The leading men 
in the eyes of the people were Franklin and Wasliington. 

172. Franklin, — Benjamin Franklin was a Boston boy by 
birth, but settled in Philadelphia early in life. He was a 
printer and newspaper writer, self-taught, who first became 
widely known through his annual publication of " Poor 
Richard's Almanac." This was filled with good advice, al- 
ways put into easily remembered proverbs, such as 

" Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep tbee;" 
and 

" Plough deep, while sluggards sleep, 
And you shall have corn to sell and to keep." 

Poor Richard's proverbs seemed very good sense to most peo- 
ple; and it was found, when Franklin was given public work 
to do, that he acted in accordance with his own proverbs. 
Americans believed in his good sense and honesty; and many 
of them had supported colonial resistance because he favored 
it. Then, too, they liked him because he, like them, was ai)t 
to think for himself, and not to believe simply because other 
people had believed. For example, men had had very odd 
notions about electricity; Franklin, accepting none of these 
opinions, showed that electricity and lightning were the same 
thing, and that the lightning-rod might save houses from 
destruction. In other matters likewise, he thought for him- 
self; and men listened to him for that reason. 

173. Washington. — Twenty years had passed since Wash- 
ington had gone on his mission to the French (§ 137), and he 
was now over forty years old. He was not yet so widely 
known as Franklin, but the people were soon to know him 
better. He had Franklin's good judgment, though he was 



1775] THE REVOLUTION. 75 

not so ready a talker; but he was as able to carry plans into 
effect as Franklin was to make them. He knew how to choose 
the best men to help him, to bear patiently with their imper- 
fections, and to select the wisest advice out of all that was 
offered him. Above all, men soon came to see that he had no 
selfish desires; that he cared nothing about obtaining a high 
place for himself, but cared only for the good of the country; 
and so they trusted him, and gave him the highest places they 
could make for him. 

174. Jefferson, — Another member of this Congress, 
Thomas Jefferson, had not much influence at the time, but 
was to have more as the years passed by. He was a poor 
speaker, though a brilliant writer. Men liked to have him 
write out a thing after they had decided upon it, for he could 
put it into the words that were best suited to it; but they 
had not so much confidence in his good judgment, for he 
was apt to adopt new ideas merely because they were new. 
He was filled with a love of that principle of democracy, 
which has come, little by little, to have such great effects ou 
the people and on their government (§ 121). He felt that laws 
were good according as they left more liberty to each person; 
and that no government was good for the whole country un- 
less it made each person (that is, individuals) more free. The 
people did not generally agree with him at first; and he be- 
came their leader at last, not so much because they liked him 
or his ideas, but because his ideas were those which they could 
not help adopting. 

175. Congress Accepts War. — When Congress met, it de- 
cided to adopt the minute-men before Boston as a " Conti- 
nental army," to send Washington to be its commander-in- 
chief, and to begin a navy. But it unfortunately did not 
attempt to lay taxes, but issued paper money, which was 
nothing but promises to pay, and there Avas no money with 
which to redeem them. For some years, then, interest turns 
to Washington's management of the army, while Congress was 
trying to raise money to support it. 



76 



THE REVOLUTION. 



[1775 






(1) In New England. 

176. Bunker Hill. — Before Washington could reach Bos- 
ton, the American forces had decided to seize a liill known as 
Bunker Hill, on a peninsula just north of the town of Bos- 
ton, from which their cannons could fire into Boston and 
drive the British out. Through the darkness of the night, 
they went nearer Boston, and fortified another hill, called 

Breed's Hill.* Gage, the next 
morning, sent over a force of 
picked men in boats to the 
foot of the hill to retake 
it. The great question was 
"whether the Yankees would 
fight," and it was soon settled 
that they would. Not a shot 
was fired until the attacking 
line was close to the breast- 
work; then came a sheet of 
flame, and as the smoke lifted, 
the British line was seen re- 
treating down the hill. The 
attack was renewed, with the 
same result. It was renewed a third time, and the defenders 
of the works, whose powder and bullets had all been used, 
fought desperately for a few minutes with gunstocks and 
stones. At last they retreated slowly to the mainland, f and 
the British took the fort, but Avith the loss of one third of 
their number. 

177. Washington's Army. — Washington found his men, 
though not discouraged by the result of Bunker Hill, poorly 
armed and clothed, undisciplined, and unwilling to submit to 
the strict rules necessary for an army. He worked all through 







SCALE OF MILES 



Around Boston. 



* Breed's Hill is now known as Bunker Hill, and Bunker Hill Monument is 
erected upon it. 

t Among the killed was Joseph Warren, a Boston physician, and one of the 
American leaders. His amiable character and great abilities made his loss a seri- 
ous one. 



1776] m NEW ENGLAND. 77 

the winter with the energy of ten men; he obtained powder 
and arms from captured British ships; he persuaded the men 
to submit to discipline; and finally he had something like an 
army.* His headquarters were at Cambridge, near Boston; 
and here he raised the first flag of the United Colonies, 
having the stripes of the present flag, but a double cross 
where the stars now are, to represent the king.f 

178. ETacuation of Boston. — In the following spring (1776) 
Washington seized Dorchester Heights, another hill much like 
Breed's Hill, but on the opposite side of Boston. Before his 
movement was discovered, he had made his positioii so strong 
that the British did not care to attack it, but agreed to leave 
Boston. They then set sail for Halifax, and Washington 
entered Boston in triumph. From this time the British 
Government made no serious effort to conquer New England ; 
and for a few months, until they attacked the Middle States 
(§ 187), there were no longer any British forces within the 
United States. 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 171) Bancroft, vii. 353; Hildreth, iii. 76; 
Greene, 89. (§ 172) Lives of Frauklin by Sparks, Bigeloic, Parton, and 
McMaster; Franklin, ii. 80 {Extracts from Poor Richard), i. I. (autobi- 
ography); Parker, 13. (§ 173) Lives of Wasliinglon by Sparks, Everett, 
Irving, Marshall, and Lossing; Parker, 75; Cnfi\\?,'s Recollections; Rush's 
Private Life of Washington; Brougham's Eminent Statesmen, ii. 131; 
Curtis, i. 380. (§ 1~4) Lives of Jefferson hy Randall, Parton, and Tucker; 
Parker, 2m; Webster, i. Ill; Schouler, ii. 200. (§176) Bancroft, vii. 
404; Hildreth, iii. 72: Carrington, 92; Moore's Diary, 97; Bryant and 
Gay, iii. 396; Frothingham's Siege of Boston, 382; Wiiisor, vi. 135, and 
authorities from p. 184, with Reader's Handbook, 35. (§178) Bancroft, 
viii. 60, 291; HUdreth, iii. 85, 121.] 

(2) In Canada. 

179. Ticonderoga. — Washington had been aiming to drive 
the British out of Canada, as well as out of Boston, so that 

* The uniform, when the men had one, was blue and yellow (or buff), and these 
were the "rebel" colors during the Revolution. But the men generally wore 
hunting-shirts, dyed brown, as they could afford nothing better. 

t When the colonies declared themselves independent of the king, they put the 
stars in place of the double cross. A stripe as well as a star v,^as added for the new 
States of Vermont andKentucky; and American soldiers and sailors fought through 
the War of 1813 under a flag with fifteen stripes and fifteen stars. It was then de- 
cided to retain only thirteen stripes, and add a star for each new State. 



78 THE REVOLUTION. [1776 

Canada might join the other colonies. The strong fort of 
Ticonderoga blocked the way from northern New York into 
Canada; but this was taken by surprise by Ethan Allen and 
a party of Vermonters (1T75). See map (§ 137). 

180. Invasion of Canada. — Montgomery and Schuyler, two 
New York officers, led an Ameiican force into Canada at 
once and captured Montreal. Here Arnold joined them with 
more troops, after a perilous journey througli northern Maine; 
and the whole army attacked Quebec. JMontgomery was killed 
and his troops were beaten off. The next spring tliey re- 
treated to Ticonderoga, and Canada remained a British 
province. 

(3) In England and on the Coast; 

181. Feeling in England. — Very many persons in England 
had believed that the colonists were right — that in figliting 
for the right of taxation by their Assemblies they were doing 
just what Englishmen had done long before in fighting for the 
right of taxation by Parliament in their own country (§30). 
This feeling died away somewhat as the war grew more angry, 
but it never was wholly lost. 

182, Parliament's Measures, — Parliament was naturally 
very angry when it heard of the battles in Massachusetts and 
the siege of Boston. It declared the Americans rebels; it 
voted to hire German soldiers from Hesse, called Hessians, 
since it was not easy to induce Englishmen to go over and 
fight in America; and it directed that American vessels should 
be captured as enemies. All this was not likely to make 
Americans feel more kindly to tlie British Government. 

183, On the Coast. — British vessels along the coast acted 
as if they were dealing with an enemy's country, instead of 
with colonies of their own, country. They fired into towns 
whore they were refused provisions; and the stories of such 
cruelties made the colonists still more angry. Soon after the 
evacuation of Boston, a British fleet attacked Charleston, but 
was beaten off by the South Carolina troops, one of the ships 
being burned. These events made the colonists feel that they 



1776] m THE MIDDLE STATES. 79 

not only wished independence, but were able to obtain it if 
they would fight for it. 

(4) Independence. 

184. The Desire for Independence. — The movements of the 
armies make up most of the history of the Revolution, but 
they had little to do with the life of the people, who went on 
working, plowing, sowing, and reaping, except where the 
armies were placed. There were nearly three millions of the 
colonists by this time, and there were never more than about 
40,000 British soldiers in America at any one time. They 
were too well-disciplined soldiers to be easily driven out; but 
they held only a few places, and very many of the people never 
saw one of them. Three or four noisy and lawless men would 
give as much annoyance to a village of three hundred inhabi- 
tants as the British armies ever gave the colonies. But the 
village would soon want to be rid of its troublesome members; 
and so the colonies came to wish to be rid of British rule; 
that is, to be independent. They no longer cared to be sub- 
jects of a king who was openly on the side of their enemy, 
the Parliament. 

185. State Grovernnients. — The first sign of independence 
was in the spring of 1776, just after the evacuation of Boston. 
The separate colonial governments had gone to pieces (§ 163). 
Instead of them, the people of the colonies now formed 
governments of their own, without asking jDcrmission of king 
or Parliament. These no longer called themselves colonies, 
but States; so that the "United Colonies," as they had called 
themselves, were now really the United States. All that was 
necessary was to assume the name of the United States, and 
that was done in the Declaration of Independence. 

186. The Declaration of Independence. — Virginia led the 
way in calling on Congress to declare independence; but it 
was some months before all the other colonies agreed to it. 
The resolution to that effect was adopted July 3. In the 
meantime, a committee had been appointed to draw up a 
Peclaration. The work of writing it was given to Jefferson 



80 THE REVOLUTION. [1776 

(§ 174).* The Declaration of Independence was adopted by 
Congress July 4, 1776. f 

[Supplementary Reading.— (i^ij; 179, 180) Winsor, vi. 156, 160, 213 
Bancroft, vii. 339; viii. 68, \18: HildretTi, iii. 74, 102. (§182) Bancroft 
viii. 159, 255; Hildreth, iii. 61, III. (§183) Bancroft, viii. 230, 346, 394 
Winsor, vi. 169, 229; Moore's Dw/r^, i. 157; Lossing, ii. 754. (§§ 185 
186) Bancroft, viii. 378, 434, 462; Utldreth. iii. 124; Wimoi-, vi. 231 
263, 269; Frothingham, 245, 548; Greene, hS. 100; Moore's Z)wr^, i. 261 
Pitkin, \. ^^2; Curtis, i. 81; Randull, i. 172; Jefferson, i. 14,96,146 
/. Adams, iii. 55; Preston, 210; Bryant and Gay, iii. 479. 

(5) In the Middle States: 1770-1778. 

187. The New York Expedition.— The British forces had 
only drawn back for a more dangerous attack. They had 
given up New England, for its coast was stormy in winter 
and unsafe for sailing vessels, and had decided to attack the 
Middle States, where there was an excellent harbor for their 
ships, and a deep river reaching nearly to Canada, by securing 
which they might cut off New England from tlie rest of the 
Union. Washington had hurried from Boston to New York; 
and the work of fortifying the city had been begun when the 
British expedition appeared, just before the adoption of the 
Declaration of Independence, and took possession of Staten 
Island. It was commanded by General Howe and Admiral 
Howe, two brothers. 

188. Battles around New York. — After spending two 
months in efforts to make peace with the colonies, Howe sent 
part of his army over to Long Island, where part of the 
American forces were defending Brooklyn. The battle of 
Long Island showed the great superiority of trained over un- 
trained soldiers; the Americans were completely defeated and 
driven into Brooklyn, then only a ferry station. Washington 



* Jefferson was not a successful public speaker, and John Adams took upon 

himself the work of defending; Jefferson's form of the Declaration before Congress. 
The two men were therefore closely united in support of the measure; and it was a 
curious coincidence that the deaths of Jefferson and Adams fell on the same day, 
and that day the 50th anniversary of the passage of the Declaration, July 4, 18^. 
t The Declaration is in the Appendix. 



1776] 



IN THE MIDDLE STATES. 



81 



succeeded in bringing them over 
to upper New York under cover 
of a fog, but the British fol- 
lowed, and AYashington re- 
treated northward before them, 
skirmishing as he went. When 
he reached the hilly country 
near Peekskill, where he had 
prepared fortifications, Howe 
was unwilling to attack, and 
drew back to take possession of 
New York, capturing as he went 




Fort Washington (now in 
upper New York City), in 
which an American force 
had been left against 
Washington's orders. 
From this time until the 
end of the war New Y^ork 
City was held by the Brit- 
ish. 



82 THE REVOLUTION. [1776 

189. The Retreat through the Jerseys. — It was evident that 
Howe meant to attack the Jerseys next, and Washington took 
part of his army across the Hudson and down its west bank 
to meet them. Part of the British army, under Cornwallis, 
succeeded in crossing the Hudson, and Washington could 
only retreat before them, delaying their advance as long as 
possible.* By the end of the year (1776), he had been driven 
across New Jersey and had put the Delaware Eiver between 
his little army and its pursuers. 

190. Discouragement of the Americans. — The state of affairs 
had changed since independence was declared in the previous 
summer. The British now held Xew York and New Jersey, 
and were so near Philadelphia, then the largest city in the 
country, that Congress left that city, giving Washington power 
to do whatever he thought best. It was "a time that tried 
men's souls;" very many persons within the British lines had 
declared themselves British subjects again. Washington's 
army was growing smaller every day, and the British believed 
that they had only to wait until the Delaware Eiver should 
freeze over, so that they could cross, to catch Washington 
and end the war. 

191. Trenton and Princeton. — An unexpected movement 
of Washington gave him back most of New Jersey. Crossing 
the river on Christmas night of 1776, with his best troops, he 
surprised and captured the Hessian garrison of Trenton; and 
the cheers which followed him as he marched his prisoners 
into Philadelphia showed that the current of the war had 
changed. Ten days later, having returned to Trenton and 
findingthat the British, under Cornwallis, were hemming him 
in between themselves and the Delaware, Washington broke 
camp by night, and marched around the sleeping British 
army. Coming to Princeton, he met and captured a British 
force on its way to join Cornwallis, and then marched toward 



* It was (hiring: this retreat that the British captured and hanereda young Amer- 
ican officer. Captain Nathan Hale. He was a spy, like Andr6 (§ 215"), but was not 
treated as was And r6. He was shown no sympathj-, and was not given time to 
write a letter or prepare for death. 



1777] IN THE MIDDLE STATES. 83 

New Brunswick, where all the supplies of the British were 
stored, as if he meant to attack that place next, Cornwallis 
hastily pursued him; but he turned off into the mountains of 
northern New Jersey, and fortified himself at Morristown. 
Here the British did not venture to attack him. 

192. Winter Quarters. — At Morristown, Washington was in 
a position from which he could strike any British force which 
should attempt to pass along his front toward Philadelphia. 
The British soon found themselves so insecure that they drew 
in around New Brunswick and near Sandy Hook, leaving the 
rest of New Jersey to the Americans. The winter thus passed 
without much advantage to either side, except that Washing- 
ton's generalship had saved Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 

193. Foreigners as American Officers, — In the following 
year (1777) the Marquis de La Fayette, a French youth of 
nineteen, crossed the ocean in a ship provided by himself and 
loaded with supplies for the American army, to take service 
under Washington. He brought with him Kalb, an expe- 
rienced German officer. Others followed his example. There 
had been war in Europe for many years, and many men had 
grown up knowing war as a business. War in Europe had 
now stopped for the time, and these men were anxious to take 
part in the American war. The best of those who came were 
La Fayette and Kalb, Kosciusko and Pulaski, two Polish patri- 
ots, and (in 1778) Steuben, a veteran German officer, who 
first instructed the American troops in the tactics used in 
Europe. Many of the other foreign officers, however, were 
selfish and ambitious men, who gave Washington and Con- 
gress a great deal of trouble. 

194. Howe's Sea Expedition. — Howe found that Washing- 
ton was not to be moved fi'om his stronghold at Morristown, 
and in the summer (1777) he embarked most of his army on 
the fleet at Staten Island and put out to sea. He sailed 
southward and then up Chesapeake Bay, landing near Elk- 
ton, Md. Washington had brought his army to defend Phila- 
delphia, and was now drawn up between Howe and that city. 

195. Brandj^wine and Germautown, — A creek called the 



84 



THE REVOLUTION. 



[1777 



Brandy wine crosses the road from Elkton to Philadelphia; 
and. here at Chad's Ford, the two armies met and joined 
battle. The Americans 
were defeated, but did 



better fighting than they 
had yet done. Howe 
took Philadelphia; but 
Washington did not lies- 
itate to attack him again 
at Germantown (now a 
part of Philadelphia). 




This battle was doubtful for a time, but the Americans were 
beaten off after hard fighting. 

196. Valley Forge. — Congress had fied from Philadelphia 
again, leaving Washingtpn in control. He found a place 
near Philadelphia, called Valley Forge, from which he could 
watch the l^ritish as well as he had done at Morristown. 
Here he spent the winter with his men. The winter was bit- 
terly cold, and the half-clad Americans suffered terribly. 
But Was?vington persisted in keeping his place at Valley 



1777] THE BURGOYNE CAMPAION. 85 

Forge, from which he could threaten the British if they 
should venture to move out from Philadelphia. But things 
were not so dark as they had been, for while Washington liad 
been fighting around Philadelphia, a British army had sur- 
rendered in northern New York (§ 201); and before the win- 
ter was over, France had entered the war as an ally of the 
United States (§ 20i). 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 187) Bancroft, viii. 458, ix. 37; Hildreth, 
iii. 142; Bryant and Gay, iii. 490; Winsar, vi. 375, 323. (§ 188) Ban- 
croft, ix. 76; Hildreth, iii. 148; Carrington, 199; Dawson, 150; Lossing's 
Rev., ii. 806; Harper's Mag.,h.\\g\i?,t, 1876. (§§ 189-191) Bancroft, ix. 194- 
256; Bryant and Gay, iii. 520; Hildreth. iii. 154-168; Winsor, vi. 367; 
Carrington, 254-294. (§ 193) Headley's Washington and his Generals, ii. 
271; S parks 's Pute^iy ^ovi an' s, Steuben; Kapp's *S'tewSe«-. (§§194-196) 
Bancroft, ix. 357,388,422,452; Hildreth, iii. 216; Greene, 257; Carring- 
ton, 362-412.] 

(6) Burgoyne's Expedition : 1777. 

197. Biir^oyne's Expedition. — In the summer of 1777, while 
Howe was embarking his army for Philadelphia, General John 
Burgoyne, with an army of British, Hessians, Canadians, and 
Indiaus, moved southward from Canada, to attack northern 
New York, and fight his way down the Hudson Eiver to New 
York City. He reached Ticonderoga, which he captured 
without difficulty. Opposed to him Avas Schuyler (§ 180), 
with less than half as many men. 

198. Schuyler's Defence. — Schuyler could only retreat, but 
he destroyed the bridges behind him, felled trees across the 
roads, and delayed the enemy as much as possible. Finally, 
he took a position on some islands where the Mohawk emp- 
ties into the Hudson, so that Burgoyne could not well pass 
him, and could attack him only under great disadvantages. 
Both armies halted for a time. 

199. Fort Schuyler and Bennington. — By this time, Bur- 
goyne began to be in want of provisions. He sent one part 
of his army to the westward to take Fort Schuyler (now the 
city of Eome). The garrison of the fort, reinforced by 
Arnold, beat off the attacking force, and, instead of allowing 



THE REVOLUTION. 



[1777 



it to rejoin Burgoyne, chased it into Canada. About the 

same time, Burgoyne had sent 
anotlicr part of his army east- 
ward into Vermont, whose peo- 
ple claimed to be a separate 
State (§ 55). The British ex- 
pedition was met at Bennington 
by Vermont and Xew Hamp- 
shire militia under Stark and 
"Warner. After a battle lasting 
nearly all day, the British sur- 
rendered, and Burgoyne thus 
lost a large part of his best Hes- 
sian soldiers.* 

200. Bemis Heights and Still- 
water. — Congress had sent Gates 
with reinforcements to take 
Schuyler's place. Gates moved 
his army up the west bank of the 
Hudson and at Bemis Heights 
met Burgoyne, who had crossed 
to the same side of the river. A 
furious battle followed, in which 
the British held the ground, but 
were unable to drive the Ameri- 
can army from its position. 
Another attempt to break 
through the American lines, 
three weeks later,resulted in a de- 
feat of the British at Stillwater. 

201. Surrender of Burgoyne. 
— Burgoyne's position was now 
desperate. His Indians were 
leaving him ; he had lost his 
best troops ; he was no longer 
able to get provisions irom 

* Stark's speech to his men beiore ihf Itattle, is said to have been: " There they 
are, boys; we must beat them to-day, or this night Molly Stark's a widow." 




SCALE OF MILES 



1777] m TEE MIDDLE STATES. 87 

Canada, for the Americans had passed his camp and blocked 
the roads toward the north ; and the American riflemen were 
swarming around him and making it dangerous to move even 
from one part of his camp to another. Unable to advance or 
retreat, and not having even bread for his men, Burgoyne 
surrendered at Saratoga. A trained British army had been 
captured by a hastily collected army of farmers. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ix. 322, 361,405; Hildretli, iii. 
196; Winsor, vi. 292, 348; Bryant and Oay, iii. 581 ; 'Lossmg'?, Schuy- 
ler ; Dawson, i. 255; Carrington, 303; Creasy, cap. 13; Moore's -Deary, 
i. 496, 513 ; Greene, 263 ; Header's Handbook, 134 ; Sparks 's Stark.] 

(7) Aid From France. 

202. France and England. — The men who then controlled 
the British Government were not well liked in other countries 
of Europe, and particularly in France. It is known now that 
France had kept agents at work in the British colonies ever 
since the conquest of Canada (§ 144), in order to get the first 
news of any inclination of these colonies to rebel against Eng- 
land; and when the Kevolution at last broke out, arms and 
clothing came secretly from the French Government to the 
American armies. Congress sent agents to Paris to induce 
France to take the side of the colonies openly; but the French 
Government was not ready for this until the colonies should 
prove that they were ready to do their full share of the fight- 
ing in the war with England which would certainly follow. 

203. The Appointment of Franklin. — Franklin (§ 172) was 
one of the American agents sent to France. He reached that 
country in the darkest hour of the war, just before the battle 
of Trenton, and proved to be one of the wisest foreign agents 
that any country ever had. For more than a year he ob- 
tained from France all the secret aid which that country 
could give. The French people liked him better than any 
other foreigner whom they had seen, and their liking for him 
made their government more friendly to him. 

204. The French Treaty. — The capture of Burgoyne's 
army helped Franklin immensely, for it showed that the 



88 THE HEVOLVTION. [1778 

United States would not leave all the fighting to France. 
When the news came, the French Government at last agreed 
(1778) to make a treaty of alliance with the United States, 
and to send a fleet of war-vessels and an army to America to 
take part in the war. This treaty was the first case in which 
another nation recognized the United States as a nation. 

205. England Declares War. — The British Government at 
once declared war against France, and offered their former 
colonies all that they had asked three years before, freedom 
from taxation and representation in Parliament. It was 
too late, for the colonies were now determined to be inde- 
pendent.* 

206. Battle of Monmoatli. — Clinton succeeded Howe as 
the British commander in Philadelphia during the winter 
after the capture of that city. On receiving the news of the 
French alliance, Clinton left Philadelphia, and moved his 
army across the Jerseys toward New York City, in order to 
unite all his forces before the French should arrive. Wash- 
ington hurried after him from Valley Forge, and overtook the 
rear of the British army at Monmouth Court-house (Free- 
hold). A battle followed, and lasted until nightfall without 
decided result. During the night the British drew off to 
Sandy Hook, and there embarked for New York City. 

207. Washington's Headquarters. — AVashington moved his 
army northward and again took up his old position, his line 
running from about Peekskill, in New York, to Morristown, 
in New Jersey. From this line he could attack the British if 
they moved out in any direction from New York City. For 
the remainder of the war these positions were maintained, 
and the British held but two important places in the Northern 
States, New York City and Newport. Having evidently 
failed in New England and, in the Middle States, they were 
now about to make an effort to conquer the Southern States 
(§319). 

[Supplementary Beading.— i?a/;r?-q/7. ix. 133, 285, 811. 478, x. 124 ; 
Hildreih, iii. 177, 246; Lives of Frankliu b}- Parton, Bifflow.nud McMaftter; 

* Spaiu and Holland afterwards Joined France in the war. 



1778] IN THE NORTS AFTER 1778. 89 

Hale's Franklin in Finance; Sparks's Franklin; Oreen:;, 173 ; Lyman, i. 
17; Trescott, 15; Pi^-jX i. 394, 400, 500 ; Bryant and Gay, in. b^S; 
J. Adams, iii. 123, ix. 477 ; Moore's Diary, ii. 43 ; Green's Larger Hist., 
sees. 1512, 1513 ; Carrington, 412 ; Lossiug's Rev., ii. 356.] 

(8) I:n" the North after 1778. 

208. Attack on Newport. — When the French vessels 
arrived (§ 204), it was found that the bar at the mouth of 
New York harbor woukl not permit them to enter, and it 
was decided to attack Newport. An American army was sent 
to Rhode Ishmd to join in the attack by land; but a storm 
blew the French fleet off the coast, the attack failed, and the 
British still held Newport. 

209. Change in the War. — After the French alliance, the 
v/ar became much more savage, for the British Government 
now considered the Americans to be not only rebels, but trai- 
tors who had gone over to the French. Americans who were 
taken prisoners were confined in old ships, or " hulks," where 
they were half-starved and were treated most cruelly. The 
Indians were sent against such frontier settlements as Wyoming 
Park and Cherry Valley, N. Y., and they spared neither men, 
women, nor children. Expeditions for plundering and burning 
houses and towns kept the shores of Long Island Sound and the 
New Jersey coast in alarm; and men who suspected their 
Tory neighbors (§ 157) of inviting British expeditions were 
not likely to treat such neighbors very kindly after the expe- 
ditions had returned to New York City. The war thus be- 
came more bitter and savage in the North, though never so 
much so as in the South (§ 221). 

210. Paper Money. — Congress had begun by issuing paper 
money, or promises to pay money (§ 175), in order to carry on 
the war and pay the expenses of the army. Before long, more 
paper money had been issued than the country needed for 
business purposes; and then, as always happens in such cases, 
the people themselves would not take the paper as worth as 
much as gold. By the time of the French treaty, so much 
paper had been issued that eight paper "' dollars " would buy 



90 THE REVOLUTION. [1778 

only as much as one dollar in gold or silver. This made mat- 
ters worse, for Congress now had to issue eight times as much 
paper as before, and its value fell faster than ever. Before 
the end of the war the " continental " paper money had be- 
come almost worthless, and the people were left almost with- 
out any money which they could use in business. Such a 
state of affairs is worse for a people than can be described in 
any book, and was one of the severest trials of the war. 

211. Discontent of the Army. — It was only poor food and 
clothing that Congress could buy for the soldiers; and the pay 
of the men, small enough at first, became hardly anything 
when a paper dollar had become worth only two cents. To- 
ward the end of the war the army no longer received any pay, 
and it was very difficult to obtain recruits. Several different 
regiments, starving in camp, and yet not permitted to return 
home, undertook to march to Philadelphia and compel Con- 
gress to provide for them ; and it required all Washington's 
firmness and influence to bring them back. At the end of the 
war, when the men were sent home without money, they 
would have broken out in open rebellion but for their respect 
for Washington. 

212. Congress and the States, — Congress itself was not so 
much respected as at first, and the States did not submit to it 
so willingly as when they were all in fear of the British. 
Every year the States had more power and Congress less; 
and Congress could only go on begging the States for soldiers, 
borrowing money in France and Holland, and issuing more 
paper money, for it had no power to lay taxes for the purpose 
of paying the debts of the country. The United States had 
indeed become a nation, but a nation without a real national 
government (§ 247). 

213. The Great West. — All this time the country Avest of 
the Alleghanies had been left in possession of the Indians. 
Such men as Daniel Boone had begun settlements in Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee; but these found it difficult to defend 
themselves against the Indians from the other side of the Ohio 
River, who had been set on by the British in Detroit and 



1779] IN THE NORTH AFTER 1778. 91 

Vincennes. In the year of the French alliance, George 
Eogers Clarke crossed the Ohio with a force of Kentuckians, 
captured Vincennes, and conquered all the territory now in 
the States of Indiana and Illinois. Virginia claimed it (§ 2-4), 
and called it the county of Illinois. But no American settle- 
ments were made in it until long after the war. Settlement 
was then begun in Ohio by soldiers from the American 
army, on lands which Congress had given them instead of 
pay (§ 364). 

214. Stony Point. — For about three years Washington 
held his line (§ 207), watching Clinton in New York City. 
There were frequent skirmishes between the two armies, the 
most brilliant being the capture of Stony Point (1779). This 
was a rocky hill running out into the Hudson, and was the 
British post nearest to the x\merican lines. Washington sent 
a force under General Anthony Wayne* to take it. Wayne 
ordered his men not to fire a shot, but to trust to the bayonet. 
Forming his troops at the foot of the hill at midnight, he carried 
the fort by surprise. The fort was destroyed and the prison- 
ers were taken back to the American lines, for the object of 
the attack had not been to hold the place, but to show the 
men that they were now trained soldiers, who could use the 
bayonet as well as their enemies. 

215. Arnold's Treason. — The country was shocked the 
next year (1780) by the discovery that Benedict Arnold, one 
of its bravest generals, and commander of the important post 
of West Point, had become a traitor. He had agreed to be- 
tray his post to the British in return for a large sum of money 
and a brigadier-general's commission in the British army. He 
had been reprimanded for misusing the public money, and 
took this means of revenging himself. The British agent in 
making the bargain was Major John Andre, Clinton's aide-de- 
camp, an amiable young officer. He was caught near Tarry- 
town by three American militiamen, while he was returning 
down the Hudson from an interview with Arnold ; and, after 

* Wayne's daring Rave him the popular name of "' Mad Anthony,'' but he was 
really as prudent as he was daring (§ •i~i)). 



92 THE REVOLUTION. [1778 

a fair trial and the kindest treatment, was hanged as a spy. 
All the American army lamented his execution; but Washing- 
ton felt that it was necessary, as a warning to other British 
officers not to engage in such affairs. Arnold escaped to the 
British lines, and was made a British general, though his plot 
had failed. At the end of the war, he went to England, 
where he lived and died despised by Englishmen as well as by 
Americans. 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 208) Bancroft, x. 146; Hildreth, iii. 252; 
Arnold's Rhode Island, 419. (§ 209) Bancroft, x. 140, 151; Hildreth, iii. 
174; Lossiug's i?e?;., ii. 865; Moore's 2><«7'y, i. 374; ii. 219, 461; Stone's 
Brant; Stone's Wyoming; Peck's Wyoming; Campbell's Gertrude oj 
Wyoming; Dunlap'siVew York, ii. 147. (g 210) Bancroft, x. 169; Hildreth, 
iii. 271. {§ 213) Bancroft, x. 193; Hildreth, iii. 260; Shaler's Kejitucky, 
76; Abbott's Boone; Ramsay's Annals of Tennessee. (§ 214) Bancroft, 
X. 2'28; Hildreth, iii. 282; Carrington, 472; Winsoi-, vi. 455, 557; 
Moore's Diary, ii. 192; Lossing's Rev., ii. 175; Harper's Mag., July, 
1879; Lives of AVayne by Sparks and Armstrong. (§ 215) Bancroft, x. 
371; Hildreth, iii. 319; Bryant and Gay, iv. 16; Carrington, 512; 
Boynton's History of West Point, Ab; Arnold's Arnold; Sparks's^rwoMy 
Moore's Diary, ii. 393; Lossing's i?e?j., ii.; Marshall's Washington, iv. 
274; Sargent's Andre; The Galaxy, February, 1876.] 

(9) On the Sea. 

216. Privateers. — Most of the Amei-ican vessels during the 
war were privateers, that is, vessels owned by private persons, 
but commissioned, or given authority, by Congress, or by one 
of the States, to act as ships of war. Tlie sailoj-s who were 
captured in such vessels were always harshly treated by the 
British, not so much because their vessels were privateers, for 
the British themselves sent out such cruisers, but because they 
were Americans, or ''rebels." Nevertheless, men in plenty 
were ready to undertake this 'dangerous service; and Amei-ican 
privateers captured great numbers of British merchant-ships 
and small war-vessels and sometimes almost put a stop to 
British commerce. They were very fast sailers, and skilfully 
handled; and their success in taking British vessels loaded 
with supplies helped to equip the American armies. 



1778] nr THE SOUTH. 93 

217. The Navy. — Congress had so little money that it was 
unable to form any large navy of its own. Some ships were 
begun, but in most cases they were burned before completion, 
in order to prevent the British from capturing them. 

218. Paul Jones. — When Franklin arrived in France, he 
began to buy French vessels. The largest he placed under 
command of John Paul Jones, who had shown himself to be 
the boldest of the American captains, and Jones named it the 
Bonhomme Richard (" Goodman Richard ") in remembrance 
of Franklin's almanac (§ 172). During the cruise, Jones met 
an English frigate, the Serapis, and one of the most desperate 
sea-fights in history followed. Jones succeeded in fastening 
the two vessels together, and, after a long night-battle, in 
which both ships were on fire several times, the Serapis sur- 
rendered.* 

[Supplementary Reading.— Cooper's Naval Histwy, i. 179; Emmou's 
Naval History ; Peterson's History of tJw Navy ; hossiug's Story of the 
Navy ; Barney's Life of Joshua Barney ; Abbott's Life of Paul Jones; 
Mackenzie's Life of Paul Jones; Cooper's Pilot; Headley's Miscellanies, 
ii. 48; Bancroft, x. 271; Hildreth, iii. 123. 176, 300; Winsor, vi. 563; 
Bryant and Oay, iii. 618; Carrington, 654.] 

(10) In the South: 1778-1781. 

219. Change of British Policy.— We have seen (§ 206) that 
the news of the French alliance forced the British, to give up 
Philadelphia and draw back into New York City. Their 
leaders seem to have become convinced that the war Avas going 
against them, and to have become desirous of gaining at least 
a part of their old colonies before peace should be made. 
They believed that the Southern colonies would not be so 
difficult to conquer as the New England and Middle States 
had been; for they were less closely settled (§ 98), and a 
larger part of their population were slaves, who were not con- 
sidered fighting men. For the remainder of the war, then, 
the British confined their main efforts to the South. 

220. Conquest of Georgia — Late in the year of the French 

* Jones was a native of Scotland. He afterwards entered the Russian navy, but 
died in poverty and neglect. 



94 



THE REVOLUTION. 



[1778 



alliance (1778), a British expedition from IS'ew York meeting 
with little resistance captured Savannah. Georgia was then 
so thinly settled (§ 92) that the British had little difficulty in 
extending their power over the whole State. The Americans, 
aided by a French fleet, made an attempt to recapture Savan- 
nah, but Avere repulsed. Pu- 
laski was among the killed 

(§ 193). 

221. Whigs and Tories.— The 
Tories (§ 157) in Georgia and 
other Southern States were 
permitted by the British to 
injure their Whig neigh 
bors almost as they 
pleased; and the 
Whigs were quick 
to return sim 




lar injuries whenever it was in their power to do so. The 
war thus became more cruel and savage in the South than it 
had been in the North. For several years there was little 
peace or good feeling in any part of the South; and the shoot- 



1780] ZZV THE SOUTH. 95 

ing and hanging of men by their neighbors, and even of 
brother by brother, were results even more horrible than those 
of open battle. 

222. Conquest of South Carolina. — General Lincoln, who 
commanded the Americans in South Carolina, kept the Brit- 
ish from Georgia out of his State for some time, until another 
British expedition from New York captured Charleston, with 
Lincoln and his army.* From Charleston, the British sent 
out expeditions in various directions, and soon had South 
Carolina also under their control. 

223. Partisan Warfare. — South Carolina never quite sub- 
mitted to Cornwallis, the British commander, or to Tai-leton, 
his most active and cruel cavalry officer. Sumter, Marion, 
and other South Carolina leaders found places of refuge in 
the great swamj^s which are numerous in parts of their State, 
and from these they kept up an active warfare against the 
British. Their desperate battles, night-marches, surprises, 
and hair-breadth escapes make this the most exciting period 
of the Eevolution. Such "partisan warfare" was not con- 
fined to South Carolina. At King's Mountain, N. C, Corn- 
wall is's best force of scouts was suddenly attacked and capt- 
ured by a force of backwoodsmen from eastern Tennessee and 
western North Carolina. 

224. Camden. — Congress sent Gates, the victor of Sai-atoga 
(§ 200), to attempt to recover South Carolina. Some of his 
men were " Continental " soldiers, Americans who had been 
long in service and were well disciplined; but most were 
militia. The British met them at Camden, and defeated 
them. The militia ran at the first fire; but the Continentals 
fought desperately, losing their commander, Kalb (§ 193). 
The South now seemed more than ever at the mercy of Corn- 
wallis. 

225. The Cowpens.— Gates had done so badly that Congress 
replaced him by the appointment of General Nathaniel Greene, 
one of the most cautious and successful of the American gew- 

* As a preliminary to this expedition, the British abandoned Newport, wbiclj 
they had biiberto held (§ 308). 



96 THE REVOLUTION. [1781 

erals. Greene's first step Avas to send Morgan, one of his 
ojfficers, into South Carolina witii a small force, to gather re- 
cruits. Tarleton hurried to meet him, found him at " the 
Cowpens," a pasture-field near Spartanburgh, and for the first 
time was completely defeated, losing nearly all his men. 

226. Greene's Retreat. — Greene brought u^) all his men to 
support Morgan, but they were too few to face Cornwallis, 
who was hurrying, with his main army, to find and punish 
Morgan. Greene managed a skillful and fortunate retreat 
across North Carolina into Virginia. When Cornwallis at last 
gave up the chase, he was a long distance from South Carolina, 
and this gave the Whigs of that State further opportunity of 
partisan warfare against the decreased British forces which 
were trying to keep them in subjection. 

227. Arnold in Virginia — Clinton, the British commander 
at New York, thinking that all the three Southern States were 
finally conquered, sent Arnold (§ 215) to begin the conquest 
of Virginia, and was anxious that Cornwallis should move 
northward and aid Arnold to complete the conquest of the 
South. La Fayette, who commanded tlie American troojis 
opposed to Arnold, could do little but watch liis enemy, and 
Arnold plundered Virginia without mercy. British officers, 
and Cornwallis among them, despised the traitor and objected 
to serving with him. He was therefore soon replaced by 
another British general; but his army remained near Rich- 
mond, in Virginia, and the British plan was that Cornwallis 
was to join it as soon as possible. 

228. Guilford Conrt-liouse. — Greene obtained reinforce- 
ments in southern Virginia, and turned back into North 
Carolina to meet Cornwallis. The two armies met at Guil- 
ford Court-house (now Greensboro) in tlie spring of 1781. 
Again the militia ran away, and Greene was forced to yield 
the ground; but his Continentals inflicted such severe loss in 
return that Cornwallis was compelled to draw off to Wilming- 
ton, to obtain help from the British ships there. Greene 
gathered his army together, and passed soutlnvard into South 
Carolina, leaving Cornwallis at Wilmington; while Corn- 



1781] IW THE SOUTH. 97 

wallis, thinking that Kawdon, whom he had left in command 
in South Caiolina, was strong enough to meet Greene, pre- 
pared to carry out the plans of Clinton and move into Vir- 
ginia. 

229. Reconquest of the South. — During the rest of the year 
1781, by caution, activity, and perseverance, Greene recon- 
quered South Carolina without winning a single battle. His 
two principal battles were at Hobkirk's Hill (near Camden), 
and Eutaw Springs (near Charleston). He was defeated in 
each, but inflicted such heavy loss on his enemies as to drive 
them nearer the coast. As a result, for the rest of the war 
the British held only Charleston and Savannah; the remainder 
of the South had been reconquered. 

230. Corn wallis in Virginia. — While Greene was moving 
southward into South Carolina, Cornwallis was moving in the 
opposite direction into Virginia. Reaching Petersburg, he 
took into his own force the army which Arnold had left, and 
made his headquarters at Yorktown, a little place on the pen- 
insula between the York and James rivers, where British ves- 
sels could easily reach him with supplies. By the end of the 
summer of 1781 the British held only New York City, Charles- 
ton, Savannah, and Cornwallis's post at Yorktown. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Ramsey's American Revolution; Garden's 

Anecd(jte^ of the Revolution; hee's Memoirs of the War in the Southern 
Department; Hartley's Heroes of the South. (§ 219) Bancroft, x. 283; 
Hildreth, iii. 274. (§ 220) Bancroft, x. 285; Hildreth, iii. 275; Los- 
sing's Rev., ii. 786; Marshall's Washington, iv. 97; Moore's Diary, 
ii. 138; Steven's Georgia, ii. 200; Sparks's Pulaski. (§ 221) Bancroft, x. 
286, 300, 311, 3-28; V-Avion's Jackson, i. 70. (§222) Simms. 242; Ban- 
croft, X. 301; Hildreth, iii. 304; Winsor, vi. 471; Moore's Diary, ii. 269; 
Carrington,ill. (§; 223) Bancroft, x. 312,331; Hildreth. in. 313,317, 
327; Bryant and Gay, iv. 31, 38; Irving's Life of Washington, iv. 183, 
196; Greene's Greene; Lives of Marion by Weems &wd Simms ; Bryant's 
Marion's Men; Kennedy's Horseshoe Robinson; Draper's King's Moun- 
tain; Moove's Dia7'y, ii. 338; Ramsey's Annals of Tennessee, 225. (§224) 
Bancroft, x. 320; Hildreth, iii. 314; Winsor, vi. 476, 533; Carrington, 
513; Moove's Diary, \i. 310; Knpp's De Kalb; Simms's The Partisan 
and Mellichampe. (§ 225) Bancroft, x. 456; Hildreth, iii. 342; Mar- 
shall's Washington, iv. 336; Winsor, vi. 480; Bryant and Gay, iv. 41; 
Carrington. 541; Greene's Life of Greene, iii. 139; Graham's Morgan. 
(§ 226) Bancroft, x. 468; Hildreth, iii. 343. (§ 227) Campbell's Vir- 
ginia, 168; Cooke's Virginia, 456; Lossing's Rev., ii. 434; Moore's 



98 THE REVOLUTION. [1781 

Diary, ri. 384. (§ 228) Bancroft, x. 476; Hildreth, iii. 346; Winsor, vi. 
485, 540; Carrington, 556; Lossing, ii. C94; Greene's Greene, iii. 176. 
(§ 22^) Bancroft, x. 485; Hildreth, iii. 3-19; Bryant and Gay, iv 57; 

n.-£.Hi>«'e fivi'enp iii 'P.41 • T.oitxi'nn ii fi7fi- CnrrhifitotJ . 5fifi- Arnnrp's 




Marshall's Washington, iv. 430.] 



(11) YoRKTOWN : 1781. 

231. The French Army. — In the summer of 1780, a French 
army under command of Rochambeau ai-rivod at Newport, 
and after a time Joined Washington at Morristown.- They 
were excellent troops, and their arrival made Washington for 
the first time superior to the British in New York City. 

232. Washington's Work. — During the three years follow- 
ing the battle of Monmouth (§ 206), Washington had held his 
place in the Morristown lines, watching Clinton in New York 
City, getting no great amount of militai-y gloi'y out of the war, 
but doing its most important work. He had been constantly 
drilling his men, giving directions for military operations in 
other parts of the country, and meeting the ditficulties arising 
from the feebleness of Congress and the seltish efforts of men 
who disliked him, and who were trying to put some other gen- 
eral in his place. The arrival of the French army and a 
powerful French fleet gave him at last an opportunity to 
win the crowning victory of the war. But he had also to 
be thankful for a mistake of the British. They had allowed 
one of their armies, under Cornwallis, to get so far away from 
the two main divisions of their forces that a sudden attack 
upon it by an overpowering American army would be fatal 
before help could be sent to Cornwallis from New York City 
or Charleston. 

233. The March to Yorktown. — Washington and Eocham- 
beau made open preparations on a grand scale for an attack 
upon New York City, and kept Clinton in a great sti;te of 
alarm. Suddenly the American and Fiench armies struck 
off through New Jersey to Philadelphia, and thence to Elk- 
ton. There they took shipping and sailed down Chesapeake 



1783] 



PEACE. 



99 



Bay to the James Eiver, where they fonnd that a French 
fleet had arrived just before 
them, and had thus cut off 
Cornwallis's escape by sea. 

234. Cornwallis's Surren- 
der. — Three weeks of close 
and determined siege by the 
allied armies brought Corn- 
wallis to such straits that he 
was compelled to surrender 
his army. His men were 
kept in Virginia as prisoners ; 
and the allied armies marched 
back triumphant to their for- 
mer position at Morristown. 

235. End of the War.— 
Peace was not finally made 
until two years later ; but 
all parties, except the king, 
saw that the war was really 
over. Parliament voted so 
decidedly in favor of mak- 
ing peace that the king gave Surrender at Yorktown. 

way, and agreed to recognize the independence of the United 
States. The delay was caused by the necessity of arranging 
terms of peace. 

[Supplementary Reading.— ^ayzcrcfi!, x. 512; Hildreth iii. 366; Bry- 
ant and Guy, \w. 66; Winsoi\ vi 499.547; Johnslon's YoHtoicn Cam- 
paign; Moore's Diary, ii. 512; Lossing's Rev. ii. 508; Curriitgion, 
646; Pai-ton's Franklin, ii. iiS; Atla)ific. January, 18S6; Gordon's 
R'voliUion, iv. 175: LippincoU, April, 1879; Cuslis's Recollections, 837; 
Kapp's; ISteaben, 453.] 




SCALE OF MILES 



(12) Peace: 1783. 

236. The Treaty of Peace.— After two years of waiting, the 
final treaty of peace was made in 1783. Great Britain ac- 
knowledged the United States to be free and independent. 



100 THE REVOLUTION. [1783 

with Canada as a boundary on the north, the Mississippi 







River on the west, and 
Florida, extending west to 
the Mississippi, on the 
south. Spain owned the 
territory to the west of the 
Mississippi, called Louisi- 
ana (§ 147), and Great 
Britain now gave her 
Florida also. The United 
States thus had Great Britain as a neighbor 
on the north, and Spain on the south and 

5t. . 

237. Disbandment of the Array.— The 

American army was discharged from ser- 
vice ; but the soldiers went home very much 
dissatisfied, as they had been paid nothing 
of what was due them (§311). Washing- 



1783] CBBONOLOOICAL 8UMMABT. 101 

ton appeared before Congress, resigned his commission, and 
returned to his home at Mount Vernon. The British had 
evacuated Charleston, Savannah, and New York City; but 
they continued for some twelve years longer to hold Detroit 
and other posts in the northwest (§ 378). 

238. The Tories. — The peace was a sad event for those who 
had taken the side of the mother-country, the Tories (§ 157). 
It was impossible for them to remain in their old homes, for 
their neighbors were too angry with them; and many of the 
States had passed laws to punish them by taking away their 
property. Most of them dejaarted with the British armies 
to Canada, Nova Scotia, the West Indies, or England; but a 
few of these returned, years after, when the passions of the 
war had died away. 

239. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of the 
American Revolution were as follows : 

1775-76: Principally in New England and Canada g 176 

1775: Lexington and Concord; American success (April 19)..' 165 

Ticonderoga; American success (May 10) 179 

Bunker Hill; British success (June 17) 176 

Quebec; British success (December 31) 180 

1776: Evacuation of Boston; American success (March 17). . 178 

Fort Moultrie, S. C; American success (June 28) 183 

Declaration of Independence, July 4 186 

1776-78: Principally in the Middle States 187 

1776: Long Island; British success (August 27) 188 

Evacuation of New York; British success (September 16) 188 

Washington's New Jersey retreat; British success 189 

Trenton; American success (December 26) 191 

1777: Princton; American success (January 3) 191 

British army transferred to Chesapeake Bay . . 194 

Brandywine; British success (September 11) 195 

Germantown; British success (October 4) 195 

Burgoyne's invasion (June-October) 197 

Bennington ; American success (August 16) 199 

Bemis Heights; drawn battle (September 19) 200 

Stillwater; American success (October 7) 200 

Burgoyne's surrender; American success (October 17). 201 

American winter-quarters at Valley Forge 196 

1778: Treaty with France (February 6) 204 

British retreat from Philadelphia; American success 

(June 18) 206 

Monmouth; drawn battle (June 28) .* 206 

Wyoming; massacre by Tories and Indians (July 4). . . 209 

1778-81: Principally in the Southern States 219 



102 THE REVOLUTION. [1783 

1778: Capture of Savannah; British siiccess (December 29). .§ 220 

1779: Conquest of Georgia; Biilish success 220 

Attack on Savannah; British success (September) 220 

Stony Point, N. Y.; American success (July 15) 214 

1780: Capture of Charleslown; British success (May 12) 222 

Conq\iest of South Carolina; British success 222 

Arrival of the French army (July Id) 231 

Camden; British success (August 16) 224 

Arnold's treason (September) 215 

King's ]\Iountain: American success (October 7) 223 

Greene takes command in the Soutli (November). . . . 225 

1781: Cowpens; American success (January 17) 225 

Greene's retreat across Nortli Carolina 226 

Guilford Court-house: British success (March 15). .. . 228 

Hobkirk's Hill; British success (April 25) 229 

Eutaw Springs; British success (September 8) 229 

Keconquest of the South 229 

Cornwallis moves into Virginia 280 

Washington's army transferred to Virginia 2H3 

Capture of Yorktown; American success (October 19). 234 

1782: Suspension of ho.stilities 235 

1783: Peace (September 3) 236 

[Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, x 536: Hildreth, iii. 415; Bryant 
and Gay, iv. 7"); Pitkin, ii. 528; Greene, 20."); Franklin, ix. 238; Par- 
ton's Franklin, ii. 458, 48'!; Rives's Madison, i. 336; J. Adams, i. 392; 
Sabine's American Loyalists.^ 



CHAPTER II. 

THE CONFEDERATION: 1781-89. 

240. The New Nation.— The United States had thns be- 
come a 7iation, recognized as sucli by treaties vvith France, 
Great Britain, and other coiuiti-ies. But the new nation had 
come into existence rather because the American people could 
not help it than because the American people liad any great 
desire for it. Most Americans at this time loved their State 
far better than they did the United States; and many of them 
really believed that they could keep each State altogether 
independent of all the other States, as well as of the rest of 
the world, with a mere promise that all should help one 
another in foreign affairs. They were afraid of any " govern- 
ment of the United States," lest it should attempt to tyran- 
nize over the States, as the British Government had done over 
the colonies. 

241. The Continental Congress. — At first, tlie people tried 
to get on without any real " government of the United States." 
The Continental Congress, under which the war began, soon 
became almost powerless (§ 212), except that Washington 
.and the armies obeyed its orders. It had no power to raise 
money by taxation, or to make laws and compel men to obey 
them : it could only advise, and as the danger from the British 
grew less, men came to pay little attention to its advice. 

242. Land Claims, — Much of the difficulty of arranging a 
new government came from the claim of some of the States 
to western territory. Connecticut, for example, claimed that 
its territory extended westward to the Mississippi River, tak- 
ing in part of northern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and 

103 



104 THE CONFEDERATION. [1787 

Illinois. Other States made similar claims, and Virginia 
claimed almost all the Northwest (§ 74). These States did 
not want a government of the United States to be strong 
enough to take this western territory away from them; and 
yet tliat was just the government that the other States were 
determined to have. 

243. The Articles of Confederation.— In 1777, Congress 
agreed upon a plan of government called the Articles of Con- 
federation. It was to go into force as soon as all the States 
should agree to it. As it really left the western territory to 
those States which had claimed it, the States which had no 
such claims refused for some four years to agree; and thus 
most of the fighting of the Revolution had been d(me without 
any real government. In 1781, however, it being understood 
that all the States would give up their western claims to the 
United States, the articles were at last ratified, and the United 
States had a government. 

244. Failure of the Confederation. — It was soon found 
that the new government was a distressingly poor one. The 
new system had been carefully arranged to give the Govern- 
ment of the United States as little power as possible: it had 
no power to lay taxes, regulate commerce, or punish law- 
breaking. It could get no money to pay the debts of the 
United States, and could not prevent the States from making 
laws to injure one another, or foreign countries from injur- 
ing American commerce. The people felt every evil of a poor 
national government, and there was no certainty that the 
system would not prove utterly useless at the very time when 
a strong government should be most needed. 

245. Land Cessions, — The best work which we owe to the 
Confederation was this surrender of their western claims by 
the States which had held,them: Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
New York, Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. 
It is true that they kept a lai'ge portion for themselves: Vir- 
ginia sold many acres in the West; and Connecticut kept 
that part of northeastern Ohio known as the Western Re- 
serve. But the surrender gave the United States a very large 



1787] THE CONFEDERATION. 105 

western territory, in wliich to carry the State system further 
by forming new States. 

246. The Ordinance of 1787.— As soon as Virginia had 
given up its claim to the Northwest, the Congress of the 
Confederation adopted a plan of government for the terri- 
tory northwest of the Ohio Eiver, or the "Northwest Terri- 
tory." The plan is commonly known as the Ordinance of 
1787. It forbade slavery in the Territory, and provided for 
common schools, trial by jury, and other privileges for the 
people. But its most important feature was its extension 
of the American system of self-governing States. Congress 
might have attempted to govern the people of the Terri- 
tory by its own will, as the British Parliament had attempted 
to govern its colonies, but it did not. It provided that the 
people of the Territory should do more of the work of govern- 
ing themselves and making their own laws as their numbers 
increased, until finally they should form five States, whose 
people should govern themselves in all points as the people of 
the old States had done. The result has been the formation 
of the five great States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
and Wisconsin. The same plan was followed with the terri- 
tory south of the Ohio, except that slavery was not forbid- 
den in it; and the States of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, 
and Mississippi have been formed there. The same plan 
has been followed whenever other territory has come to the 
United States; and thus the system of self-governing States 
has spread all over the country, making it quite different, in 
very many respects, from any other country.* 

247. The Desire for a New Government. — We have not the 
space to tell all the reasons which the people had for dissatis- 
faction with the government established by the Articles of 
Confederation. It was not a government which did its proper 
work well. It gave the people no security; it built no light- 
houses; it gave American vessels no protection against the 

* There are now 0890) forty-two States, five Territories whieh it is intended shall 
some day become States, and three (the District of Columbia, Indian Territory, and 
Alaska) which are not likely to become States. 



106 THE CONFEDERATION. [1787 

attacks of pirates or the unjust laws of other countries. Less 
commerce was done yearly; there was less money to buy from 
the farmers; and the farmers, unable to pay their debts, saw 
their farms sold by the sheriff. People who thought about 
the matter saw that the root of the trouble was in the weak- 
ness of the government. 

248. Difficulties of a Change — It was not easy to obtain 
any ciiange in the government. Most of the people still liked 
their 8tate better than any national government, and were 
very unwilling to make the national government stronger 
(§ 212). Besides, the Articles of Confederation had provided 
that they were not to be changed in any respect unless all the 
States should agree to the change. Congress asked for a 
number of very nece-sary changes; but there was always some 
State which refused to consent, so that the change fell 
thi-ough. It was difficult to see how a change could be made. 

249. Shays's Rebellion. — When the Aiticles had been in 
operation for about five yeais, an event took place which 
brought dissatisfaction to a head. The farmers of western 
Massachusetts, foi'ced to pay debts when they had very little 
money, rose in rebellion under one Daniel Shays; and the 
State government had much difficulty in restoring order. 
Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had no power 
to help Massachusetts; and this made many of the people 
more willing to have a stronger national government. 

250. Hamilton. — The new desire for a stronger national 
government was represented by Alexander Hamilton, of New 
York. He was born in the West Indies, had come to New 
York City when a boy, and had become known at once as a 
brilliant writer. He had served under Washington in the 
Eevolution, and had then become a well-known lawyer. He 
was one of the ablest men of his time; and he and Jefferson 
(§ 174) soon came to reprei-ent two opposite wnys of thinking 
about public affairs. But ILimilton's way was so plainly the 
more advisable at this time that he became one of the most 
prominent leaders of the country. 

251. The First Convention. — Just before Shays's rebellion, 



1787] THE CONFEDERATION. 107 

it had become evident that the country was to be disgraced 
by its failure to pay the money which it had borrowed abroad 
(§ 212), the payment of which was soon to fall due, for Con- 
gress had no power to raise money by taxation, and the 
States neglected to do so. Washington had been writing to 
influential men in all parts of the country, and the general 
feeling seemed to be that it would be best to change the Arti- 
cles of Confederation, even if they could not induce all the 
States to agree to the change, for they hoped that the States 
which should dislike the new system would be too few to re- 
sist. Washington induced the Virginia Legislature to call for 
a convention of delegates from the States at Annapolis in 
1786; but only five States sent delegates, and the convention 
merely sent out a request for a second convention for the fol- 
lowing Spring at Philadelphia. In the mean time, Shays's 
Eebellion (§ 249) showed the evils of the old system so plainly 
that twelve of the States were now willing to send delegates 
to the second convention. 

252. The Convention of 1787. — The second convention was 
composed of the ablest men of the country, and was more suc- 
cessful. It chose Washington as its presiding officer. For 
four months it held meetings, discussed proposed changes of 
every kind, and many times came near breaking up without 
accomplishing anything. Finally, however, it agreed upon 
the Constitution of the United States, and adjourned. The 
Constitution was to go into force when approved by conven- 
tions in nine of the thirteen States. 

253. The Constitution. — The Confederation had had but 
one House of Congress, no president, and no judges. The 
Constitution provided for a national government which should 
have power to act, and not simply to make requests of the 
States. It was to be in three departments: a legislative de- 
partment, or Congress, to make laws; an executive depart- 
ment, the president and his officers, to carry out and enforce 
the laws made by Congress; and a judiciary department, the 
Federal courts, to decide disputed questions about the laws. 
The legislatures of the States were still to make such laws as 



108 THE CONFEDERATION. [1789 

concerned only their own States; but the Constitution was to 
be the supreme law of the land, to be obeyed by the national 
government, by the State governments, and by the people. 
The Constitution named a great many subjects, as to which 
Congress alone was to make laws. Among these were the 
powers to lay taxes and duties and to borrow money for the 
United States; to regulate commerce; to carry mails; to grant 
patents; to declare war; to maintain armies and navies; to 
suppress insurrections; to build forts and dock-yards; to help 
the States keep order; and to see to it that the governments 
of the States remained republican, giving no privileges to 
particular classes of its people. If the laws passed by Con- 
gress were disobeyed, the national government was to punish 
the offence: Congress was to determine the punishment; the 
President's officers were to arrest the offender; and the Fed- 
eral courts were to try him. But the punishment was always 
to be determined by Congress before the offence was com- 
mitted.* 

254. Federalists and Anti-Federalists. — For nearly a year, 
it was doubtful whether the Constitution would be approved 
by nine States. Those who wished it to be approved took the 
name of Federalists, as they were anxious for a stronger fed- 
eral government; and those who opposed it were known as 
Anti-Federalists. State after State held its convention and 
decided Avhether to approve or reject the Constitution. 
Finally, it was found that eleven States approved it, one 
(Rhode Island) rejected it, and one (North Carolina) was not 
yet ready to decide. The Constitution was therefore to take 
the place of the Articles of Confederation as a system of na- 
tional government. 

255. Preparations for Inauguration — The Congress of the 
Confederation was in session when the ninth State ajiproved 
the Constitution; and it decided that the new government 
should begin at New York City, March 4, 1789. In the mean 
time, the people were to vote for members of the two Houses 
of Congress, and for electors to choose a President and Yice- 

* For further consideration of the Constitution, see Chapter XTT and Appendix. 



1789] THE COKFEDERATION. 109 

President (§ 738), so that everything should be ready for the 
inauguration of the new system. It was found that all the 
electors chosen voted for Washington for President (§ 365). 
He was sworn into office April 30, 1789 (§ 739). 

256. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this 
period are as follows : 

1781-1789: The Confederation § 340 

1781: Tlie Articles of Confederation go into force ' 243 

1783: Final treaty of peace with Great Britain 236 

1784: Land cession by Virginia 245 

1786: The Annapolis Convention. 251 

Shays's Rebellion 249 

1787: The Federal Convention forms the Constitution 253 

The Ordinance of 1787 adopted 246 

1788: Ratification of the Constitution 254 

1789: The Constitution goes into force 255 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 340) Uigginson, 300; Greene, 104 
Curtis, i. 133. (§ 341) McMaster, i. 133, 363; Bancroft, x. 168, 419 
Greene, 113. (§ 242) Hlldreth, iii. 398; Frothingham. 574; Curtis,\. 131 
(§ 343) Preston, 218; Andrew's Manual, Appendix; Johnston, 248 
Frothingham, 569; Bancroft, ix. 436. Hildreth, iii. 395; Pitkin, ii. 12 
Curtis, i. 124; Ridpath, 357. {§ 344) Frothingham, 578; Higginson, 395 
Eidpath, 358; Curtis, i. 172, 241, 328; Bancroft's Constitution, i. 254; 
(§ 245) McMaster, i. 150; Hildreth, iii. 398. (§ 246) Preston, 240; An- 
drew's Manual, Appendix; McMaster, i. 165, 509; Hildreth, iii. 449, 
463, 537; Schouler, i. 73; Curtis, i. 396, 302; Bancroft's Constitution, i, 
154, 179; Tucker, i. 346; Higginson, 306; Ridpath, 359. (§ 347) Ban 
croft's Constitution, i. 18. (§ 348) Curtis, i. 368. (§ 249) McMaster, i 
300; Hildreth, iii. 474; Pitkin, ii. 320; Higginson, 303; Schouler, i. 32 
Curtis, i. 266. (§ 250) Lives of Hamilton by /. C. Hamilton, and Lodge; 
Bancroft, x. 409; Schouler, i. 24; Curtis, i. 406; Greene, 384. (§ 251) 
McMaster, i. 390; Hildreth, iii. 477; Curtis, i. 340; Bancroft's Constitu- 
tion, i. 267; Schouler, i. 30; (g 252) McMaster, i. 399, 436; Hildreth, iii. 
482; Schouler, i. 31, 36; Bryant and Gay, iv. 100; Frothingham, 590; 
Pitkin, ii. 334; Thicker, i. 348; Higginson, 304; Curtis, \. 380; Bancroft's 
Constitution, ii. 1. (§353) Preston, 351; Ridpath, 360; Bancroft's Con- 
stitution, 321; Johnston, 11; Schouler, i. 41. (§ 254) McMaster, i. 455; 
Schouler, i. 54; Hildreth, iii. 533; Bancroft's Constitution, ii. 225-318. 
(§ 255) McMaster, i. 532; Hildreth, iii. 546.] 



CHAPTER III. 

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: 

1789-1801. 

257. Preliminary Outline. — The ratilicatiou of the Consti- 
tution had given the country, for the first time, a real national 
government of its own; but for some years there seemed no 
great reason to believe that it would last long. Many of the 
people disliked it; others had no great liking for it, and had 
agreed to it mainly because such men as Washington and 
Franklin approved it. It was possible that some of the States 
might break away and try some other form of government, 
before the new national government should be strong enough, 
and well enough liked by the people, to prevent this. The 
twelve years covered by tliis chapter were those in which the 
Constitution was really established, that is, became assured of 
continuance. 

(1) State of the Country. 

258. Cities and Houses. — The country was not yet thickly 
settled; and its population (4,000,000 by the Census of 1790) 
was not as large as that of the single State of New Yoik or 
Pennsylvania in 1880.* The largest American cities of the 
time, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, had 
hardly more than 20,000 persons in any of them, and other 
towns were only small collections of houses. The streets 
were pooi-ly paved, dirty, and seldom lighted at night. Some 
of the houses were large and well furnis]ied,but none of them 
had the conveniences that are so common now. There were 
no lucifer-matchcs, no gas, none of the modern oil-lamps, and 
water was carried from the town pump or well. The richest 

* See Appendices. 

110 



1789] STATE OF THE COUNTRY. Ill 

people were under difficulties which are hardly known now, 
and the life of the poor was very hard. 

259. Life in the Country. — Xot many of tlie people lived 
in the cities: most of them lived on farms, where life Avas 
still harder than in the cities. It was not easy to work with 
wooden ploughs, and witliout any of the farming tools and 
machinery which have since been introduced. Everything 
used by the farmer and his family, even their clothing, was 
made at home or produced on the farm. In the Middle 
States and the South, life was easier, for crops cost less labor, 
and were more easily sold for ready money; but even here 
the farm or plantation had to produce almost everything that 
was used. 

260. Books and Newspapers. — Books we^-e not very numer- 
ous, for most of the people had little spare money with which 
to buy them. The Bible and the almanac were the books 
most commonly owned. The newspapers were few, small, and 
not well jirinted, as we would think; and they circulated 
mainly in the cities and among the few richer men outside of 
the cities. Outlying villages seldom saw a newspaper; and, 
when one did appear, its news was weeks old. The only 
means of obtaining news in such cases was to ask questions of 
the occasional travellers: and thus travellers came to think 
that Americans vrere a very inquisitive peoj^le. 

261. Travelling. — Sailing-vessels were the usual means of 
travel on the larger rivers and along the coast, and an unfa- 
vorable wind might detain the traveller for weeks. The voy- 
age from New York to Albany sometimes required a fort- 
night; and prudent men, it is said, made their wills before 
undertaking it, on account of its peril. The stage-coaches 
were slow and clumsy: they took as many days as the railroad 
takes hours to go from New York to Philadelphia, and a week" 
to go from New York to Boston. The roads were very bad; 
there were few bridges; and the rivers were crossed by means 
of clumsy and dangerous fhit-boats. There was more danger 
then in a voyage from New York City to Brooklyn than there 
is now in a voyage to Europe. 



112 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1789 

262. Washington's Usefulness. — It would have been no easy 
matter to set up any new government in a country whose 
people were so scattered and knew so little of each other; 
but the universal affection and respect for Washington made 
it mucli more easy than it could have been Avithout him. 
Those who knew little about the Constitution were satisfied 
to know that Washington was at the head of the Government. 
By the time he had been President for eight years, every one 
was satisfied with the Constitution and glad to retain it, no 
matter who might be President. 

263. The Country in 1789.— The United States covered 
the territory east of the Mississippi, north of Florida, and 
south of Canada (§ 236). But the settled country was still 
mainly that part east of the Alleghanies. Between the Alle- 
ghanies and the Mississippi, all was a wilderness, except a few 
settlements in Tennessee and Kentucky (§ 213), and in the 
Northwest. Ohio and the present States northwest of it 
were less known than Alaska is now. 

264. Ohio.— The passage of the Ordinance of 1787 (§ 246) 
made it certain that new settlers in that part of the country 
would be permitted to govern themselves; and many of the 
old soldiers of the Revolutionary armies were already seeking 
new homes in Ohio. Settlement began at Marietta and Cin- 
cinnati (1788), but these were for some years rather frontier 
forts than towns. 

[Supplementary Reading. — McMaster, i. 1-102. 515; Iligr/infion, 333: 
Schouler. i. 223; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies, and Building the Na- 
tion; Scudder's One Hundred Years Ago; Lowell's My i^tudy Windows; 
Lodge's Studies in History, 60; Bryant and Gay, iv. 91; Cook's Vir- 
ginia, 370 ; Cent. Mag., January, June and October, 1884, and April 
and July, 1885.] 

(2) Washingtox's Administrations: 1789-1797. 

265. Washington's Inauguration. — When the Congress of 
the new Government met in 1789, and the votes of the elec- 
tors were counted (§ 738), it was found that Washington had 
been elected President and John Adams Vice-President, 



1789] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 113 

The new President travelled northward from Mount Vernon, 
receiving hearty welcomes at every town through which he 
passed, and was sworn into office in New York City, in the 
presence of Congress and a great number of other spectators. 

266. The First Cabinet. — Washington chose able men as 
his Cabinet (§ 737). As Secretary of State, he took Jefferson 
(§174); as Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton (§ 250) ; as 
Secretary of War, General Henry Knox, of Massachusetts; 
and as Attorney-General, Edmund Randolph, formerly Gov- 
ernor of Virginia. Hamilton and Knox were Federalists, anx- 
ious to give the new Federal Government as large a share of 
power as possible; Jefferson and Randolph had supported 
the Constitution, but still wished to retain as much power as 
possible to the States. 

267. The First Acts of Congress. — Congress was very busy 
during Washington's first four years of the Presidency, for it 
now had power to make laws, which the Congress of the Con- 
federation never had. It marked out the duties of the offi- 
cers in the different departments of the Government (§ 737); 
and laid taxes on goods brought into the country in order 
to provide money for the support of the Government. It 
arranged the whole system of Federal courts, much as we 
have them still. It selected a place for a national capital, 
the present District of Columbia, though it decided to hold 
its sessions at Philadelphia for ten years until the new capi- 
tal should be ready for it. It passed a law to pay the debts 
of the Confederation and the debts which the States had con- 
tracted during the Revolution. It provided for a National 
Bank at Philadelphia, to receive and pay out the money of 
the Government. These were only the principal Acts of a 
great number passed by the first two Congresses. 

268. The Work of Congress. — These first two Congresses had 
almost as many able men as the Convention of 1787 (§ 252) ; 
and the acts which they passed have turued out to be excel- 
lent. The Constitution generally states only what work Con- 
gress is to do, leaving Congress to decide how the work shall 
be done. These two Congresses did their work so wisely and 



114 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1794 

well that it has not been necessary to alter it very much since, 
only to extend it as the country has gi'own larger and its 
needs have become greater. For the first time the people had 
a good national government, and tliey became more and more 
satisfied with their Constitution. To more fully satisfy those 
who had opposed the Constitution, ten Amendments to it — 
most of which were to protect the right of States and indi- 
viduals — were passed by Congress and ratified by the States 
(§ 747) ; but these did not alter the general system. 

269. New States. — Two of the '"old thirteen" States, North 
Carolina and Rhode Island, which had not at first ratified the 
Constitution, ratified it during Washington's first term, and 
thus made tlie original States unanimous. But the State 
system was not to stop here. Vermont (§ 55) was admitted 
as a State, with just the same privileges of self-government 
as the " old thirteen." Then came Kentucky, which had 
been a part of Virginia, but which Virginia was now willing 
to allow to govern itself as a State. This was followed by 
Tennessee, whicli had been a part of North Carolina, so that 
there were sixteen States in the Union when Washington's 
Administrations were ended. 

270. Indian Wars. — The Indians of Ohio were much dis- 
satisfied when they saw white settlers coming into their coun- 
try, and they attacked the settlements. Two expeditions 
were sent against them, under Generals Harmar and St. 
Clair ; but the Indians surprised and defeated both of them, 
and became still more bold in their attacks on the settlers. 
They even demanded, as the price of peace, that there should 
be no more settlements north of the Ohio Eiver. They were 
now to be taught that they were not dealing with the worth- 
less government of the Confederation, but with a national 
government, which was both willing and able to protect its 
people against them. Wayne (§214), with a strong force of 
soldiers, was sent into Ohio. The Indians could not surprise 
him ; and, when they came to open battle, he inflicted an 
overwhelming defeat on them, near the present city of Toledo 
(1794). 



1794] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 115 

271. Growth of Ohio. — The Indians, in order to obtain peace 
consented to give up all the land now in the State of Ohio ; 
and, now that it was safer to do so, an increasing stream of 
settlers began to pour in. They were compelled to travel 
through a wilderness in western Pennsylvania, and down the 
Ohio from Pittsburgh ; the Indians infested the river, so that 
the boats had to be built with shot-proof sides ; but nothing 
could stop immigration. From this time the Northwest had 
a wonderful growth. 

272. Formation of Parties. — It can hardly be said that there 
.was more than one political party during Washington's first 

term (1789-93). The Anti-Federalists, who had opposed the 
Constitution (§ 254), were now very well satisfied with it ; 
and there was only the Federal party left. This state of 
things suited Washington, who considered parties an evil ; 
but it could not last long. The new government had done 
its work excellently from the beginning. It had given the 
people such comfort and security as they had not felt before ; 
and so men began to venture into new lines of business, and 
work and money became more plenty. But some who had 
supported the Constitution now began to have doubts. They 
thought that the Federalist leaders, not content with the 
powers which the Constitution had given to the new govern- 
ment, were attempting to claim powers for it which the Con- 
stitution had not granted. Thus one plan after another of 
Hamilton and the other Federalist leaders began to meet with 
opposition as unconstitntional measures {% 744) ; and two 
parties were formed. 

273. Federalists and Republicans. — Jefferson was the ablest 
leader of the opposition, as Hamilton Avas of the Federal 
party. The Federalists were those who felt most strongly the 
necessity of a strong national government ; and the Kepubli- 
cans * were those who were anxious to have as much as possi- 
ble of the work of government done by the States. These 

* The Republican party was not (hat which is now known by that name. After 
about thirty years it began to talte the name of Democrat, which the Federalists 
had at first given it as a nickname (§ 3-13), 



116 NATIONAL GOYETtNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1794 

opposite opinions divided the people into parties upon almost 
every proposed measure. When Hamilton proposed to have 
a national bank (§ 267), the Eepublicans thought the proposal 
very wrong, because the Constitution did not plainly give 
Congress the power to establish such a bank ; while the Feder- 
alists thought that the bank was so necessary that the objec- 
tion was a poor one. In the same way the two parties 
disagreed on other subjects. The Federalists had a majority 
in Congress all through this period, until the Constitution 
was securely established. 

274. The French Revolution. — The French people had been 
dreadfully misgoverned for centuries ; and about this time 
they took the government into their own hands, banished or 
killed the nobles, and cut off the head of their king. All 
this series of events is known as the French Eevolution. The 
new French government drifted into war Avith neighboring 
countries, particularly with Grer.t Britain, and for many years 
there was little peace between these two countries. 

275. Genet's Mission. — The French navy was unable to meet 
the stronger British navy on the sea ; and the French Repub- 
lic sent a minister. Genet, to the United States to fit out 
privateers (§ 216) for the purpose of attacking British com- 
merce. If the United States had permitted this, it would 
really have been joining in the war with France against Great 
Britain ; and AVashington firmly prevented it. Genet was 
very troublesome and insolent, and was finally recalled by the 
French Eepublic at Washington's request. 

276. The Whiskey Insurrection.— One of the early acts of 
Congress laid a tax on whiskey. The roads in the United 
States were then so bad that settlers in western Pennsylvania 
and Virginia could not carry their grain to market without 
paying for the carrying more than they could get for the 
grain. Accordingly tlit^y had found it profitable to turn the 
grain into whiskey, which took less room and could be more 
cheaply carried. They resisted the new tax so angrily that 
Washington was compelled to send a force of militia to Pitts- 



1795] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 117 

burgh to restore order (1794). The disturbance was known as 
the Whiskey Insurrection. 

277. The Mississippi Treaty. — Settlers in Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, and Ohio found it far cheaper to send grain by water 
than by land ; and their best market was the Spanish city of 
New Orleans (§ 236). But Spain claimed to own the lower 
part of the Mississippi ; and her officials were very trouble- 
some to American traders. These difficulties were removed 
by a treaty with Spain (1795), allowing both nations to use 
the river. 

278. Jay's Treaty. — British officers still held Detroit and 
other forts in the Northwest (§ 237), and were believed to 
have helped the Indians against the United States ; and 
British vessels were in the habit of seizing American vessels 
which attempted to trade with countries with which Great 
Britain Avas at war. All this aroused so much anger in the 
United States that Washington sent Chief Justice Jay as 
Minister to England ; and he made a treaty which put an 
end to fears of war for many years (1795). Great Britain 
gave up the forts, and agreed to seize no more vessels ; but, 
as the treaty gave some advantages to Great Britain, it ex- 
cited strong opposition in the United States. 

279. Presidential Elections. — There were no parties in the 
first two Presidential elections (1789 and 1792) ; Washington 
was elected President unanimously, and John Adams Vice- 
President with no great opposition. Before the next election 
(1796) Washington, in a Farewell Address to the people, de- 
clined to be President for a third term. The Constitution, as 
it then stood, provided that each elector should name two 
persons, not saying which was to be President and which 
Vice-President. The electors were supposed to vote for the 
best men, without regard to party ; and the person who was 
named by most electors became President, leaving the Vice- 
Presidency to the next highest. Many different persons re- 
ceived votes from different electors ; the result was that each 
party obtained one office — Adams, a Federalist, being elected 
President, and Jefferson, a Eepublican, Vice-President. 



118 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1795 

280. Increasing Prosperity. — Order and better government 
had given the country a new prosperity during these eight 
years. Commerce had increased, for tiic wars in Europe left 
trade mainly to American vessels. Banks and insurance com- 
panies begaii to be formed. Manufactures Avere springing up, 
and patents began to be more numerous. (The American flag 
began to be known in distant seas ; and during Adams's Ad- 
ministration a Boston ship, the Columhia, made the first 
American voyage around the world.) Turnpike roads were 
built out from some of the principal cities ; they were more 
carefully made than the old roads, and the expense was met 
by tolls collected from travellers. Canals began to be dug ; 
and John Fitch and others made the first attempts to move 
boats by steam, which led the way to Fulton's invention 
(§ 305). The Constitution had evidently been a great suc- 
cess while Washington was President ; it remained to be seen 
whether it would be as successful under other men. 

281. The Cotton-gin. — The cultivation of cotton had been 
tried in the South, but had not been profitable, for its seeds 
stuck so closely to it that a slave could clean but five or six 
pounds in a day. In 1793 Eli Whitney, a Connecticut teacher 
living in Georgia, invented the simple machine called the saw- 
gin, or cotton-gin, in which revolving teeth dragged the cotton 
between narrow parallel wires, leaving the seeds behind. With 
this machine a slave could clean a thousand pounds a day. The 
cultivation of cotton at once became very profitable, and in- 
creased enormously. But unfortunately this also made negro 
slavery seem more profitable in the South, so that there was 
no longer any likelihood of its dying out naturally there, as 
it was rapidly dying at the North. 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 265) Schonler, i. 74: McMaster, i. 532, 
mS\ Ilildreth, iv. 46; Piikin, \\. ^M; Tucker, \. '^.m; Bri/ant and Gay, 
iv. 104; H'gr/inson, 309; Ridpalh. 3'i3; Lnwb. (J? 267) HUdreth. iv. (iS, 
127. 152, 2i2. 256, 279; Ridpnih, 364. (§ 369) Ilildreih, iv. 147, 209, 268, 
326. 631; McMasfer, ii. 35, 2S5. (g 270) Ilildreih, iv. 248, 285, 44-1, 520, 
563; Bryai.tnnd Gny iv 114; McMaster, i. 598, ii. 44, 71. (^ 271) J/c- 
iVrts<er,"ii. 144. (ii 27?) Jo/niston. 2fi ; Ilildref/i. iv. mO. 342: McMaster, 
ii. 49. (§ 275) Ilildrith. iv 411; Schonler, i. 246; McMaster, ii. 89, 98; 
Pitkin, ii. 357. (j^ 276) UiLdreth, iv. 498; Schouler, i. 275; Bryant and 



1797] JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 119 

G(ty, iv. 118; McMaster, ii. 189. (§ 277) Bil'lreili, ii. 569, McMasUr, ii. 
14 1". 143. (% 278) Hildreth, iv. 539; Schouler, i. 270, 290; McMader, ii. 187, 
213; Pitkin, ii. 414; Bryant and Gay iv. 123; J;i\'s J<iy; Lyman, i. 190; 
Trescot, 94. (^ 279) Johnston, 27, 39. (^ 280) McMaster. ii. 553; Hildreth, 
iv. G34: ^ifi^/^^ ^ears, i. 52, 172, 192. 226; TrM^w;i. (§ 281) McMaster, ii. 
163; Bryant and Gay, iv. 108, 163; Eighty Years, i. 112; Bishop, i. 355; 
Ridpath, 487.] 

(3) John Adams's Administration : 1797-1801, 

282. The New President. — President Adams was honest, but 
quick-tempered and obstinate. He was a Federalist, who 
had been in the service of the country all through the Con- 
federation, and had come to have a great dislike for a weak 
national government, and a great anxiety to make the Federal 
Government still stronger. For this reason it was fortunate 
that he became the head of the Government when Washing- 
ton retired (§ 279). On the other hand, the new President 
did not get on well with the other leaders of the Federal 
party, particularly with Hamilton, who was better liked by 
the party than the President. So Adams's term began with 
success and ended in failure. 

283. DiflBcnlties with France. — The French Eepublic was 
much dissatisfied that it had not received help from the 
United States in return for the help given in 1778 (§ 204). 
The French Government turned the American Minister out 
of the country, and allowed French officers to seize Ameri- 
can vessels. AVhen President Adams sent special Ministers to 
remonstrate, they were told that they must pay a great deal 
of money as the price of peace ; to which the American Min- 
isters replied that the United States would spend "millions 
for defence, but not one cent for tribute." 

284. War with France. — The news excited a storm of anger 
in the United States, among men of both parties.* The Ke- 
publicans had always liked the French Eepublic; but most of 
them were now willing to declare war against it. Congress 
abolished the treaties with France, formed an army with 

* Tlie national song "Hail Columbia" was published, and became popular 
during this war excitement. 



120 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1800 

Washington at its head, and ordered the navy to capture 
French vessels. Several sea-fights followed, in which the little 
American navy was very successful. 

285. Peace with France. — Within a year. Napoleon Bona- 
parte overturned the former French government, and put 
himself in its place. He offered fair terms of peace to the 
United States, which were accepted. In a few years, he made 
himself emperor of the French, his empire covering most of 
western Europe. He could not reach Great Britain, which 
was guarded by the strongest navy in the world; but the 
wars between him and Great Britain lasted almost constantly 
until his downfall in 1815 (§ 338). 

286. Alien and Sedition Laws. — The Federalists in Con- 
gress had done some unwise things during the war excite- 
ment. They had passed laws allowing the President to arrest 
any alien (foreigner) in the United States who should seem 
to him to be dangerous: these were known as the Alien laws. 
They had also passed a law to punish any one who should 
speak evil of the Government: this was known as the Sedition 
law. Both laws aimed to give the government more power 
over the people, and the Republicans, under Jefferson, op- 
posed them very angrily (§ 171). 

287. The Presidential Election. — Both parties entered upon 
the Presidential election of 1800 in a state of great excite- 
ment. The Federalists believed that the Republicans were 
dangerous persons, who wished to turn events back, and make 
the Federal Government as weak as it had been under the 
Confederation. The Republicans believed that the Federal- 
ists were dangerous persons, who wished to make the Federal 
Government a tyranny over the States and over the people. 
The people were inclined to agree with the Republicans, who 
voted for Jefferson and Aaron Burr, of New York, for Pres- 
ident and Vice-President; while Hamilton's friends were not 
so hearty in support of xidams, the Federalist candidate for 
President (§ 282). 

288. The Disputed Election. — A majority of the electors 
chosen were Republicans. They no longer exercised any 



1800] JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTBATION. 121 

power of choice, however, but every one named the party can- 
didates, Jefferson and Burr, for President and Vice-President 
(§ 279), forgetting that these two would thus liave the same 
number of votes. The result was that while Jefferson and 
Burr had the gi'eatest number of votes, seventy-three each, 
neither was elected. In case of such a tie, the Constitution 
then directed that the House of Representatives should choose 
one of the two for President. The Federalists were in a ma- 
jority in the House of Representatives, and were inclined to 
choose Burr. After some delay, and a great deal of angry 
discussion, they elected Jefferson as President for the next 
term (§ 297). 

289. Change iu the Constitution. — Before another Pres- 
idential election came on (1804), the Xllth Amendment was 
passed. Now that parties were formed, and all the electors 
of each party voted for the same two persons, it was evident 
that the successful party's candidates would always be a tie. 
The new Amendment directed the electors to vote separately 
for President and Vice-President, so that the successful can- 
didates would hold the offices for which they were intended. 

290. Downfall of the Federal Party.— The Federal party 
did not come to an end for many years, but it never regained 
control of the Federal Government. Its work was really 
over. It had made the Constitution; it had proved that 
the new government was a success, either under Wash- 
ington or under Adams; it now remained to be shown that it 
would be a success even under the opposing party. 

291. Removal of the Capital. — In 1800, the national capi- 
tal, and the books and papers of the government, were re- 
moved from Philadelphia (§ 267) to the new city of Washing- 
ton, then a straggling and half-bnilt village in the woods. 
The Capitol and other fine buildings now in the city have 
been added as the country has grown richer. 

292. The Census of 1800.— When the census of 1800 was 
taken, it was found that the population was 5,300,000, a con- 
siderable gain in ten years (§ 258). The western States of Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee were growing rapidly; Ohio was almost 



122 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1800 

ready to become a State; and the stream of population had 
passed beyond Ohio into Indiana. 

293. Death of Washington, — Just at the end of this period 
(1799), the country was thrown into mourning by the sudden 
death of Washington. His life liad been a part of the country's 
history, until the country which he had helped to make 
was able to stand without him. But the people mourned 
none the less the loss of the great, unselfish man who had led 
them to independence and a new national life; and they have 
celebrated every year the birthday which gave them the man, 
"first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his 
countrymen." 

294. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this 
period are as follows: 

1789-1 T93: Wnshingtou's First Term § 265 

1789: Inausrin-iition of the New Government 265 

liulificiition by North Carolina ... 269 

1790: Katiticatioii by Rhode Island 269 

1791: Hannar's defeat by the Indians 270 

St. Clair's defeat by the Indians 270 

National Bank established 267 

Vermont admitted 269 

1792: Kentucky admitted , 269 

Part ies formed 272 

1793: The cotton-gin invented 281 

Genet's j\Iissiou 275 

1793-1797: Washington's Second Term 279 

1794: Wlii.skey Insurrection 276 

Wayne's defeat of the Ohio Indians 270 

1795: Mississippi Treaty 277 

Jay's Treaty 278 

1796: Tennessee admitted 269 

Washinirton's Farewell Address 279 

1797-1801: .John Adams's Term .' 283 

1798: War with France 284 

Alien and Sedition Laws 286 

1799: Peace with France 285 

Death of Wasliington 293 

1800: Removal of the capital to Washington 291 

Defeat of the Federalists 290 

[Supplementary Reading.— (§ 282) ./. Adams; Mrs. Adams's Letters; 
Lodge's Hdmilton: Srhouler. i. 341; ITihlreth. v. 33, 385; Byrunt and 
Oay iv 127: Tucker, xi. 598; ii 22; McMtster. ii. 308; Hif/ffinson, 336; 
Rklpath, 372. (^ 2s3) Hildrelh, v. 46, 128; McMnster, ii. 3-.'0, 374; 
Schouler, i. 325, 348. 374; Bryant and Gay, iv. 132. (g§ 284-5) Ilildreth, 



1800] NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. 123 

V. 205. 297, 333, 886; McMasier, ii 376, 527; Sc7iouler, i. 387; Jolinston 
43. (i; 381)) Hildreth, v. 3l6, 335, 298; ISchoukr, i. 39:5, Johnston, 44. 
(§^ 287-S) Hildreth, v. H.),-}. 389, 4i»3; Bryant and Gay, iv. 143; McMas- 
ter, ii. 494, 509; Scliouler. i. 471; Johnaton, 49. (§ 391) Hildreth, v, 391; 
McMaster, ii. 48:{; Mrs. Adjiins's Z/ei^trs, 381; Schouler, 1 475. (§393) 
Autlioriiies under § 173; Hildreth, v. 337; Scliouler, i. 451; McMaster, 
ii. 452.] 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE NATION RECOGNIZED ABROAD AND AT HOME : 

1801-1829. 

295. The Nation Abroad. — Tlie first great event whicli 
marks this period is the recognition of tiie new nation by 
other nations, particularly in Europe. It is true that govern- 
ments in that part of the world had made treaties with the 
United States, thus acknowledging the existence of the new 
nation; but they had as yet no great respect for it. It was 
poor; it had no large armies; and it was so far away from 
them that they had little fear that it would resent injuries. 
They were very apt, then, particularly Great Britain, to act 
unjustly toward American merchant vessels and seamen. 
After years of such injuries, the American Government was 
forced into war, in which it showed at last that, if it had 
no large armies, it was a great naval power; that its men and 
war-vessels could do what those of no other nation had done, 
that they could fight British vessels on equal terms with suc- 
cess. From that time, other nations have been very willing 
to treat the United States fairly. 

296. The Nation at Home, — Jefferson and his party be- 
lieved in State sovereignty (§§ 240, 399). If two States that 
are really sovereign, such as France and Spain, join for any 
purpose, either can withdraw whenever it thinks best. If 
the States of the Union wfere really sovereign, any one could 
withdraw, or secede, whenever it thought best. The strug- 
gles of these years, and particularly the war with Great 
Britain, taught the Republican party that it must support the 
7iation, whether the States liked it or not. So well was the 
lesson learned that, but for slavery, there would never again 

124 



1801] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 125 

have been any danger of secession; and most men thought 
that there was no further danger from slavery when the im- 
portation of slaves was forbidden (1808). 

(1) Jefferson's Administrations: 1801-09. 

297. Change in the People. — Jefferson's inauguration 
marks a great change in the feelings of the people. Before 
the Kevolution, and for some years after it, the people had 
been rather slow in their ways of thinking, speaking, and act- 
ing. They were accustomed to leave the management of 
affairs to their richer or more influential men. Generally 
those who owned no property were not permitted to vote 
(§ 121), and those who owned property and voted were 
much inclined to keep the rest in order by strong govern- 
ment. The change to a republic had changed the feelings of 
the people. They had become more like the Americans of 
the present time, active, pushing, and impatient of too much 
dignity in their neighbors. 

298. The Repnblicans. — The real reason wliy Jefferson and 
his party had come into power was that they represented the 
new men and the new feeling. They even tried to show the 
change by their manners and dress. They ceased to wear the 
wigs or cues of former times; they wore their own hair cut 
short; they laughed at the stiff old manners, dignity, and 
dress of the Federalists; and they insisted that every man 
should have a vote, property or no property. From this 
time, their ideas controlled the country outside of New Eng- 
land; but they made little change in the forms of govern- 
ment, which are to this day much as the Federal party left 
them. 

299. The Federalists.— Some of the leaders of the Federal 
party were so angry that they had nothing more to do with 
politics; others were no longer elected to office; and their 
greatest man, Hamilton (§ 250), was shot and killed by the 
new Vice-President, Burr, in a foolish and wicked duel. The 
party in general was so much out of agreement with the new 



126 



THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. 



[1803 



order of tilings that it had little further influence on national 
affairs. 

300. The War with Tripoli.— The Barbary States, Morocco, 
Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, were Mohammedan countries on 
the Mediterranean coast of Africa. They considered Chris- 
tian nations to be heathen, and, unless they were paid to re- 
main at peace, captured Christian vessels, and made slaves of 
the sailors. Other nations, including the United States, had 
yielded to this demand, and had paid these impudent pirates 




Barbart States. 

liberally for peace. Just after Jefferson became President, 
Tripoli demanded more money from the United States, and 
when it was refused, began to capture American vessels. The 
little American navy was sent to the Mediterranean, bom- 
barded the town of Tripoli, and forced its ruler to make peace 
without being paid for it. Other nations soon followed the 
American example of refusing to pay such tribute. 

301. Louisiana. — Na^^oleon had bought Louisiana (§ 147) 
from Spain, and meant to make it a French colony. Having 
good reason to believe that his enemy Great Britain was about 
to attack it, he sold it to the United States for $15,000,000 
(1803). This was the great success of Jefferson's first term. 
It more than doubled the territory of the United States; it 
made New Orleans an American city (§ 277); and it prepared 
the way for many new States thereafter.* 



* The great territory known as Louisiana has since been formed into the States 
of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska, Nortli Dakota, 



1804] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 127 

302. Th3 Oregon Country.— Jefferson at once sent an expe- 
dition under Lewis and Clarke, which explored the upper j\Iis- 
souri River, and the country around the Cohrmbia River to 
the Pacific Ocean. Tliis gave the United States a claim to 
the "Oregon country," covering the present State of Oregon 
and the Territories of Washington and Idaho, though the 
claim was not completed for nearly forty years (§ 439). See 
map, ]3age 155. 

303. Ohio. — The population of Ohio had by this time 
increased so much that Congress ceased to manage its affairs, 
marked off boundaries for it, and made it a State, with the 
privilege of governing itself (1802). 

304. Steam. — Steam had already been used to drive ma- 
chinery. With it men were able to produce so many more 
articles that wealth and wages had steadily increased, while 
each article had been sold at a lower price. Efforts had been 
made, with no great success, to use the force of steam in 
moVing vessels (§ 280) ; but very few persons yet thought of 
using it to move wagons by land. 

305. The Steamboat. — In 1807, Robert Fulton succeeded in 
making machinery by which the force of steam could be used 
to drive the paddle-wheels of vessels. His first clumsy vessel, 
the Clermont, made the trip from New York City to Albany in 
a little more than a day (§ 261). This was a wonderful thing 
for the whole countr}^ but more especially for the west, where 
the great rivers were so strong and rapid that boats had not 
been able to move easily against the current. A steamboat 
was soon built at Pittsburgh (1811), and western river steam- 
boats began carrying emigrants and freight in all directions, 
building up new States (§ 350), and making it easier for peo- 
ple to work with profit. 

306. Re-election of Jefferson. — .Jefferson's first term was so 
successful that he was re-elected (1804), with George Clinton 

South Dakota, Montana, and the Indian Territory, and a great part of the States of 
Minnesota, Colorado, and Wyoming, [t was thought at the time that Louisiana 
included Texas also; but in 1819 the United States gave up this claim to Spain ia 
exchange for Florida (§ 355). 



128 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1807 

of New York as Vice-President. The Federalists nominated 
candidates, but they received very few electoral votes. 

307. Burr's Expedition. — Aaron Burr was a shrewd and 
tricky man, who had fallen out of favor with his party, and 
had not been re-nominated for the Vice-Presidency. He now 
caused some excitement by enlisting men in Kentucky and 
Tennessee and embarking them in boats for a voyage down 
the Mississippi (1807). It was not certain whether he meant 
to attack the Spanish province of Mexico, or to set up a 
government of his own at New Orleans. He was arrested by 
the United States authorities and tried for treason. It could 
not be proved, and he was acquitted; but he then disappeared 
from public life. 

308. The Orders in Council.— Jay's treaty (§ 278) came to 
an end in Jefferson's first term, and new difficulties with 
Great Britain followed. They were of two kinds. (1) It is 
generally agreed that a nation, when at war, may blockade a 
coast or harbor of its enemy, that is, may station war vessels 
before it, to prevent neutral vessels from trading with it. The 
British Council, which managed the navy, now ordered it to 
capture neutral vessels bound to any part of Europe wliich 
had taken sides with Napoleon ; and this was a severe blow to 
American commerce. (2) Great Bi-itain claimed the right of 
search and impressment ; that is, the right to stop a vessel 
belonging to any other nation, and take away any sailors who 
seemed to her officers to have been born in Great Britain or 
Ireland. In this way many Americans liad been forced to 
serve on British war-vessels. 

309. The French Decrees. — Napoleon, wl)o governed by his 
own will, answered by issuing decrees forbidding neutral 
vessels to enter any British harbor or submit to search by a 
British vessel, and ordering the seizure and sale of any neu- 
tral vessel which should disobey his decrees. These are known 
by the names of the cities from which they were issued, as the 
Berlin Decree and the Milan Decree. 

310. The American Policy. — Great numbers of American 
vessels were thus seized and sold by Great Britain and France, 



1807] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 129 

which were thus inflicting injury on the United States, while 
pretending to make war only on one another. If the Ameri- 
can Government had been as strong as it now is, it would 
have armed its navy, and compelled the two contending 
nations to respect the rights of its citizens. But Jefferson 
was determined to have peace ; even when a British frigate, 
the Leopard, stopped the United States frigate Chesapeake, 
which was in no condition for fighting, and compelled her to 
give up four of her sailors, the President successfully resisted 
the country's desire to. declare war. When all the injuries 
together had become unbearable, the Republican party decided 
to stop American commerce for a time, in hope of bringing 
Great Britain to reason by injuring her trade rather than by 
open war. 

311. The Embargo. — To follow out this plan, Congress 
passed the " Embargo Act " (1807) : it forbade the departure 
of any American vessel for a foreign port. It was found to 
injure the American people more than anything that had yet 
happened. In New England, whose inhabitants were largely 
supported by commerce, business was stopped, the people 
became desperate, and a few of them began to talk of sepai'at- 
ing from the Union. The Republicans, who were mostly 
farmers, found that their crops were of less value when they 
could no longer be carried to foreign ports and sold. 

312. The Non-Intercourse Act. — So great and general was 
the dissatisfaction with the Embargo that Congress passed 
instead of it the '*' Non-Intercourse Act'' (1809). This for- 
bade trade with Great Britain and France while their offen- 
sive measures continued, but permitted trade with other 
countries. 

313. The Presidential Election. — This state of things was 
an unhappy ending for Jefferson's administrations. The peo- 
ple were hopeless of fair treatment from Great Britain or 
France, and were almost ready for war against the principal 
offender, Great Britain. In the Presidential election (1808), 
James Madison, of Virginia, was chosen President, and 
George Clinton was re-elected Vice-President. They were 



130 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1809 

Republicans, and Madison was as anxious for peace as Jeffer- 
son. But the Republicans were coming to think differently. 
They had wished the States to be strong and the national 
government to be weak ; they were ra})idly learning that, in 
intercourse with other nations, a strong national government 
was as necessary as strong States. 

314. Chronological Sunimary. — The leading events of Jef- 
ferson's administrations are as follows : 

1801-05 : .Jefferson's First Term g 297 

1801 : War with Tripoli 300 

1802 : Admission of Ohio 308 

1803 : Purchase of Louisiana 301 

1804 : Lewis and Clarke's Expedition 302 

1805 : Peace with Tripoli 300 

1805-09 : JefEerson's Second Term 306 

1806 : European Blockade of Great Britain ,308 

Napoleon's Berlin Decree 309 

1807 : Orders in Council 308 

Napoleon's Milan Decree 309 

Affair of the Leopard and Chesapeake 310 

The Embargo 311 

Burr's Expedition 307 

Fulton's invention of the steamboat 305 

1808 : Foreign slave trade forbidden 296 

1809 : The Non-Intercourse Act 312 

[Supplementary Reading.— (§ 300) Hildreih. v. 433, 448, 482. 507, 529 ; 
Bri/ant and Gay, iv. 154 ; Schouler, ii. 16 ; McMaster, ii. 588, 602 ; Rid- 
pai/i, 380 ; Cooper, ii. (§ 301) Hildreth, v. 478 ; McMaster, ii. 622 ; 
Bryant ami Gay, iv. 146 ; Schouler, i. 46 ; Ridpath, 378 ; Lyman, i. 107; 
Cent. Mag., 1883 ; Ca1)le's Creole!* of Louisiana, 130; Gilmau's Monroe 
(bibliography at the end), (tj 302) Hildreih. v. 498 ; McMaMer, ii. 633 ; 
Barrow's Oregon, 217, and bibliography at the beginning; Irving's 
Ast07-ia. (8 303) Hildreth, v. 475; Harper. •< Mag., Sept., 1885. (§305); 
Johnson, ii. 369. iv. .526 ; Bryant and Gay, iv. 169 ; Higginson, 418: 
Schouler, ii. 266 (§ mi) Hildreth, v. 520, 594 ; Schouler. ii. 118 : Tucker, 
ii. 272 ; Bryant and Gay, iv. 149 ; Partou's Burr, 381 ; Davis's jBm?t, ii. 
376 ; Randall, iii. 174. (§ 308) Hildreth, v. 534, 563 ; Schouler, ii. 
150; Bryant and Gay, iv. 172; Higginson, 365; Randall, iii 235; 
Lyman, \. 226; Dwi'ght's Hartford Convention, .52; Carey, 90, 125. 
(§309) Hildreth, v. 647, vi.'35; Schouler, ii. 138: Ridpath, 383; Carey, 
125. (§ 310) Hildreth, v. 678 ; Roosevelt, 6, 42. (§ 311) Hildreth, vi. 36 ; 
Schouler, \\. 158; Tucker, ii. 307; Bryant and Gay, iv. 178; Dwight, 
86 ; Carey, 138. (§ 312) Hildreth, vi. 128, 136 ; Schouler, ii. 194 ; 
Carey, 171.] 



1810] MADISON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 131 

(2) Madison's Administkatioxs : 1809-17. 

315. The New President. — James Madison, of Virginia, the 
new President (§ 313), was one of the ablest leaders of the Re- 
publican party. He had been a member of the Congress of the 
Confederation, of the Convention of 1787, the leader of the 
Republicans in Congress after 1789, and Secretary of State 
under Jefferson. He was a close friend of Jefferson, but 
more anxious for a strong national government than Jefferson 
had been. 

316. The English Difficulties.— The troubles with Great 
Britain came to a head in Madison's first term. The Non-Inter- 
course Act came to an end (1810) without having produced any 
effect. Congress then declared that, if either Great Britain 
or France should revoke the offensive decrees, the Non-Inter- 
course act would be revived against the other nation. Napo- 
leon at once announced that he revoked his decrees. This 
was a falsehood, for he enforced his decrees as severely as ever; 
but the falsehood served Napoleon's purpose by arraying the 
United States and Great Britain against one another. The 
United States revived the Non-Intercourse iVct against Great 
Britain, and Great Britain became more overbearing than 
ever. Her war-vessels watched the whole eastern coast of the 
United States, and captured American merchantmen, often 
without giving any reason. 

317. Tecumseh. — British officers were believed to be stirring 
up the Indians of the Northwest to war. The Indians, under 
a chief named Tecumseh, broke into hostilities, and were 
defeated by Governor W. H. Harrison in a battle at Tippe- 
canoe, near the present town of Lafayette. Tecumseh and 
liis warriors soon afterward entered the British army (§ 324). 

318. War with Great Britain. — Toward the end of Madi- 
son's first term the people had lost all patience. When new 
congressmen were to be chosen, the "submission men," who 
wished to avoid Avar, were defeated, and '''war men" were 
elected. The President himself, who still wished for peace, 
was forced to yield to the general feeling, and Congress 



132 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1812 

declared war against Oreat Britain in 1812. The -war mIucIi 
followed is commonly known as tlie AVar of 181"2. 

319. Re-election of Madison. — In the next presidential 
election (1812), Madison was re-elected, with Elbridge Gerry, 
of Massachusetts, as Vice-President. The Federalists nomi- 
nated no candidates of their own, but supported De AVitt 
Clinton, of Xew York, a Republican whom they liked better 
than Madison. 

.S20. Censns of 1810. — Tlie ])opulation of the United .States 
(1810) was about 7,200,000 (§ 292) ; that of Great Britain and 
Ireland was nearly three times as large. The larger popula- 
tion of Great Britain w'as gathered into a space about as large 
as New York, Vermont, Xew Jersey, and Pennsylvania together, 
so that it could act promptly and effectively; that of the Uni- 
ted States was scattered over a vast territory, extending from 
the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains, so that the differ- 
ent parts of the country found it difficult to aid one another. 

.S21. Tlie Tlieatre of War. — The country along the bouiul- 
ary between Canada and the United States was then a wilder- 
ness less settled than the territories of Idaho and Arizona in 
1880. There was not a town of respectable size in the whole 
western half of the State of New York or on the lake shore ; 
and the maps of the time do not show such places as Buffalo, 
Rochester, or Syracuse, even as villages. Tliere were hardly 
any passable roads here or north and west of the Ohio River: 
and food for the troops was carried to them with great diffi- 
culty and expense. U'he present States of Alabama and Mis- 
sissippi were still more destitute of inhal)itants; and the trav- 
eller or army passing from tlie settled count it around Nashville 
to New Orleans or Mobile went nearly all the way thiough a 
hostile Indian country. 

:J22. Tlie Army and Navy. — The British navy numl)cred 
about 1,000 vessels, many of them the most powerful vessels 
afloat. The American navy numbered 12, none of them of 
large size, with a number of cheap, small, and useless vessels 
called '*gun boats.'' Some efforts had been made to increase 
the American army; but the men were undisciplined, and 



1812] 



THE WAR OP 1812, 



isa 



many of the oflficers were politicians wlio knew little about 
war. The consequence was that the Americans were beaten 
in ahnost every land-battle until the fighting generals got rid 
of the political officers and disciplined the men properly. In 
the navy there were no such political officers and few failures; 
and most of the glory of the war was gained by the Americans, 
to the great surprise of the people of both countries, in bril- 
liant and successful sea-fights. 




SCALE OF MILES 



323. Dislike to tlie War. — Many of the New England peo- 
ple believed that the war was needless and wrong: some of 
them said that it was a wicked war. The government at- 
tempted to carry it on by raising loans, that is, by borrowing 
money; but most of the money was in New England, and 
could not be obtained. The consequence was that the gov- 
ernment was almost constantly in need of money, and toward 
the end of the war was hardly able to arm, clothe, and feed 
its soldiers, or build war-vessels. 

324. The War iu the West. — The war opened with the cause- 



134 



THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1814 



A 1' ^ e. 



less surrender of Detroit to the Biitisli by General Hull, 
which gave the British control of all the territory north of 
Ohio. Harrison (§ 317) was made the American commander, 
and he held the British in check for a time, though he could 
not prevent a great many butcheries by the Indian allies of 
the British. The next year (1813) he put his army on Perry's 
fleet (§ 334), crossed into Canada, and defeated the Britisli 
and Indians in the battle of the Thames, in which the Indian 
leader, Teeumseh, Avas killed. This ended the war in the 
Northwest, and Detroit and Michigan again fell into the hands 
of the Americans. 

325. The War in New York. — For the first two years the 
war in New York consisted of unsuccessful attempts to invade 

Cauada, of mistakes by incompe- 
tent American generals, of quar- 
rels and duels among the officers, 
and of American defeats in petty 
battles. Then the command Avas 
given to Generals Jacob Brown, 
Winfield Scott, and E. AV. Ripley, 
young men who had fought their 
way to promotion. They drilled 
the men and gave them better offi- 
cers; and the last year of the war 
(1814) v^as marked by two brilliant 
__ American victories on the Canada 

" ' '^ "^ side of the Niagara Eiver, at Chip- 

pewa and Lundy's Lane. These victories came too late to 
have much effect on the war; but they showed that former 
defeats were due to the generals, not to the men. 

326. The Blockade. — From the beginning of the war Brit- 
ish vessels were stationed along the Atlantic coast, shutting off 
foreign trade, and making it dangerous to sail from port to 
port (§ 308). They landed men from time to time, and plun- 
dered the smaller towns, so that the coast was kept in continual 
alarm. Attacks on New York and other larger cities were 
prevented only by fear of torpedoes, by means of which the 




SCALE OF MILES 



1814] 



THE WAlt OF 1812. 



135 



^! 








SCALE OF MILES 



Attack on Washington— Coxirse op 
British. 



Americans had nearly blown up one or two British ships 

which ventured too near New 

York. 

327. Washington. — In the 
last year of the war (1814) a 
British army was landed in 
Maryland, and set out on a 
march of forty miles northwest 
to Washington. The American 
Government had neglected to 
provide for the defence of the 
place. It was now too late 
to do so; and the British cap- 
tured Washington and burned 
the capitol and other public 
buildings. 

328. Baltimore.— After de- 
stroying Wasliington, the Brit- 
ish made a hasty retreat to their ships, on which they then 
sailed up Chesapeake Bay to attack Baltimore. The Baltimore 
people made a stout and successful resistance; the British 
commander was killed ; and his army retreated without ac- 
complishing anything further.* 

329. The Hartford Convention. — In the last year of the 
war, the dissatisfaction of the Ncav England Federalists 
(§ 323) became very great. They had thought the war bad 
in the beginning, and worse managed as it went on : and the 
New England States sent delegates to Hartford (1814), to 
consider what had better be done. The meetings of the 
Hartford Convention were secret; and it was feared that it 
was arranging to break up the Union and establish a separate 
New England republic. It finally recommended only that 
the New England States should be permitted to defend them- 
selves; but the war ended so soon after, that this recommen- 
dation met no attention. 



* The national song, " The Star-Spangled Banner," was written during the bat- 
tle bj' Francis S. Key. 



136 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1814 

330. The British Navy. — For twenty years Great Britain 
had been at war witli almost every nation of Europe; and out 
of hundreds of buttles between ships of equal force she had 
lost but five. It had come to be a common saying that, when 
France launched a vessel, she was only adding one to the 
British Navy. It had even been proposed, at the beginning 
of this war, tl)at the American navy should not be permitted 
to leave port, for fear it should be captured at once by the 
terrible British vessels. 

331. The American Navy. — British officers and men had be- 
come so accustomed to victory that they Avere now quite care- 
less in discipline; while the little American Navy was in a 
state of perfect training and eager to show what it could do. 
The consequence was a succession of brilliant victories of 
American over British vessels, which threw the American 
people into a fever of rejoicing, and startled the rest of the 
world. It thoroughly alarmed Great Britain. Hitherto her 
naval officers had been dismissed from her service if they ran 
away from a vessel equal or slightly superior in force to their 
own. Toward the end of this war they received strict orders 
not to fight an American vessel unless on entirely equal 
•terms. 

332. The Constitution and the Guerriere. — Naval battles of 
this war were so much alike that the first will give a fair pic- 
ture of any of them. The American frigate ConHiUition, 
("Old Ironsides ") was considered a lucky vessel by sailors of 
the time. She was lucky, however, only in having good offi- 
cers, who chose good crews and handled her well. While 
cruising in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in the first summer of 
the war, she fell in with the British frigate Guerriere [ger- 
re-air']. The two ships were supposed to be about equally 
matched; but within hal| an hour the Guerriere was a help- 
less, mastless wreck, with 80 of her crew killed and wounded. 
The Constitution lost but 14 of her men, and was in good 
condition when the Guerriere surrendered. The Biitish 
vessel was so beaten to pieces that it was necessary to burn 
her at once. 



1814] THE WAR OF 1812. 137 

333. Successes on the Ocean. — There were five naval battles 
in the first six months of the war, and in every one of them 
the American vessel captured or sunk its opponent. Votes 
of thanks, swords, gold medals, and silver plate were given to 
the successful officers; privateers put to sea from every im- 
portant harbor; and Americans began to feel, in their turn, 
that they were invincible on the ocean. The next year, how- 
ever, brought them a severe lesson, when the British frigate 
Shannon, whose crew had been trained after the American 
system, captured the frigate GliemiJeake, ofE Boston harbor. 
Altogether, there were fifteen of these ship duels during the 
war, in which the Americans lost but three vessels. All this 
gave the American navy a world-wide reputation, and made 
the United States a well-known naval power, though it was 
not until after the war that Congress had money enough to 
begin building more vessels.* 

334. On the Lakes. — The real struggle on the lakes was in 
building vessels. In this the Americans were successful, 
though they had to bring nails, ropes, guns, men, and provis- 
ions — everything except timber, over terribly bad roads, from 
the Atlantic coast. This was all that was done on Lake On- 
tario; and, when the war ended, both sides were busily build- 
112-gun ships, for crews of 1,000 men each. (1) On Lake 
Erie, Captain Oliver H. Perry formed a fleet of two large 
and seven smaller vessels, with which he attacked the British 
fleet, off Sandusky (1813). His own ship, the Lawrence, 
was soon disabled, but he rowed to his only other large ves- 
sel, the Niagara, and in her attacked the exhausted Britisli 
fleet. The Niagara burst through the British line, firing 
right and left as she went, and in fifteen minutes the British 
fleet surrendered, f (2) On Lake Champlain (1814) Commo- 
dore Thomas Macdonough captured the British fleet, after a 

* The British vessels captured were the Guerriere, the Frolic, the Macedonian, 
the Java, and the Alert in ISVi; the Peacock and the Boxer in 1813; the Epervier, 
the Reindeer and the Avon in 1814; and the Cyane and L-vant , the Fenqnin. and 
the Nautilus in 1815. The American vessels captured were the Chesapeake and the 
Argus in 1813, and the Essex in 1814; and the President by a British fleet in 1815. 

t Perry's dispatch announcing tlie victory read: " We have met tlie enemy and 
they are ours: two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 



138 



THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. 



[1815 



two hours' battle, iu the harbor of Plattsburgli, and thus 
stopped a British expedition for the invasion of northei'ii 
New York. 

335, The Creek War. — The Creeks were tlie leading Indian 
tribe of the Soutliwest, and they took sides with the Britisli. 
Tennessee troops were called out to oppose them, under Gen- 
eral Andrew Jackson. He defeated them in a battle at Toho- 
peka, or Horse-shoe Bend, in eastern Alabama, and compelled 
them to surrender most of their territory as the price of 
peace. Jackson thus became the leading general of the South- 
west. 

336. The Louisiana Expedition. — When it became known, 
toward the end of the year, that a great British expedition 













^/ 



r- h 




SCALE OF MILES 



Expedition against New Orleans. 

had sailed against Kew Orleans, Jackson was ordered to the 
defence of the city. He hurried to his post, summoning the 
riflemen of Kentucky and Tennessee to his assistance, and 
put up a line of intrenchments a few miles below New Or- 
leans, where there was only a narrow passage between an im- 



1815] THE WAR OF 1812. 139 

passable swamp and the Mississippi River. Here he waited 
while the British array landed and prepared for the attack 
(1815). 

337. The Battle of New Orleans. — After full preparations, 
the British line moved forward one morning, in a dense fog, 
to attack Jackson's works. Again, as at Bunker Hill (§ 176), 
there was a steady silence in the fortifications until the Brit- 
ish were so near that the fire of the riflemen was murderous. 
Ureat bodies of the attacking force fell in their tracks, as if 
levelled by the same shot. Within twenty-five minutes, the 
whole British line was in full retreat, having lost its com- 
mander and 3,500 men. The American loss was 8 killed 
and 13 wounded. A few days afterward, the British sailed 
for the West Indies. Peace had already been made, though 
neither army knew it : there was then no ocean telegraph to 
bring the good news of peace in time to avoid a battle. 

338. The Treaty of Peace. — American and British commis- 
sioners had met in the city of Ghent, in Belgium, and had 
agreed on a treaty of peace (1814). It settled nothing as to 
the Orders in Council or the impressment of seamen, which 
had caused the war (§ 308). But there was now a general 
peace in the world, for Napoleon had been conquered; and 
the damage done by the American navy during the war made 
it very unlikely that any such difficulties would occur again. 
Great Britain no longer attempted to enforce any rights of 
search and impressment, and both parties were willing to say 
no more about the matter. 

339. Results of the War. — The war had been a terrible 
experience for the American people : it had brought poverty, 
distress, defeats as well as victories, and much dissension. 
But it taught the people the importance of a strong national 
government. They saw that their defeats had come from 
the weakness of the Federal Government, and that it was the 
success of the Federal Government's navy which had for the 
first time gained them respect abroad. The Republicans had 
wished to keep the Federal Government weak, that the States 
might not be forced to do anything which they should not 



140 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOMR. [1816 

wish to do; but this looked very differently when the Repub- 
licans began to fear that the New England States would at- 
tempt to leave the Union. From this time, the Federal Gov- 
ernment was as dear to the Republicans as it had been to the 
Federalists; so that we may fairly say that it was the War of 
1812 which gave the nation respect at home as well as 
abroad (§ 29G). 

340. Manufactures. — Many Americans had spent mucli 
money in building factories. When peace was made and trade 
was opened again, English factories sent their goods to the 
United States, and sold them cheaper than the American fac- 
tories could afford to do. The American manufacturers were 
thus compelled either to close their factories or to sell their 
goods at a loss. Their difficulties had a great influence on 
public affairs for many years to come, for tlie American man- 
ufacturers were continually urging Congress to increase the 
tariff of taxes, or duties, on foreign manufactures, so that the 
foreign manufacturer after paying the tax, should not be 
able to undersell the American manufacturer. This would 
have been a "protective tariff" (§ 359), wliich most of the Re- 
publicans considered unwise, unconstitutional, and a taxation 
of the many for the benefit of a few. Some of them, liow- 
ever, thought it better in the case of wool and iron ; and the 
duties on these articles were increased. 

341. The National Bank.— The first Congress (1791) had 
created a National Bank for twenty years (§ 267). After the 
peace Congress created a similar National Bank for twenty 
years. The public money was to be deposited in it, or its 
branches, unless the Secretary of the Treasury should at any 
time order it to be deposited elsewhere (§394). 

342. New States. — Two new States were admitted during 
this period: Louisiana (1812) and Indiana (1816). Louisiana 
was but a part of tlie great Territory of Louisiana, which was 
to furnish many other States (§301). Indiana was a part of 
the Northwest Territory (§ 246). 

343. Political Parties. — The Federal Party really came to 
an end during this period. It had opposed tlie war .-jo strongly. 



1816] THE WAR OF 1812. 141 

particularly in New England, tliat young men disliked it and 
refused to vote with it. There was thus but one party left, 
the Republican party, or, as it was now often called, the Dem- 
ocratic party (§ 273). 

344. Presidential Election. — Madison's second term was 
drawing to a close, and the Republicans had hardly any oppo- 
sition in electing his successor. James Monroe, of Virginia, 
was chosen President (1816). He represented still more than 
Madison the new feelings which had grown out of the war, 
and the few remaining Federalists soon came to like him very 
nnich. Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, was chosen Vice- 
President. He had been Governor of his State during the 
war, and had supported the Federal Government vigorously. 

345. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of Mad- 
ison's administrations are as follows: 

1809-13: Madison's First Term §315 

1810: Eud of the Nou-Intercourse Law ' 316 

1811: Battle of Tippecanoe (November 7) 317 

1812; Admission of Louisiana 342 

War declared against Great Britain (Juue 18) 318 

The Essex * takes the Alert (August 13) 333 

Hull surrenders Detroit (August 16) 324 

The Constitution takes the Ouerriere (August 19). . . . 332 

The Wasp takes the Frolic (October 18) 333 

The United States takes the Macedonian (October 25). . 333 

The Constitution takes the Java (December 29) 333 

1813: The Hornet takes the Peacock (February 24) 333 

1813-17: Madison's Second Term 319 

1813: The Chesapeake taken by the Shannon (June 1) 333 

The Enterprise takes the Boxer (September 5) 333 

Perry's victory on Lake Erie (September 10) 384 

Battle of the Thames (October 5) 324 

1814: Battle of Tohopeka (March 27) 335 

The Essex taken by the Pkcebe and Cherub (March 28). . 333 

The Peacock takes the Epervier (April 29) 338 

The Wasp takes the Reindeer (June 28) 333 

Battle of Chippewa (July 5) 325 

Battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25) 325 

Burning of Washington (August 24) 327 

The Wasp takes the Avon (September 1) 333 

Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlaia (Sept. 11) 334 

Attack on Baltimore (September 13) 328 

Hartford Convention (December 15) 329 

* In uaval battles the American ship is named first. 



142 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1817 

1814: Treaty of Peace signed (December 24) t^ 338 

1815: Battle of New Orleans (January 8) ' 337 

T\\e Presklent taken by a Britisli tieet (January 15). . .. 333 

The Comtitution takes the Cyane and [jcvant (Feb. 20). 333 

The Hoi'iut takes the Penguin (]\Iarch 23) 333 

The Peacock takes the Nautilus (June 30) 333 

1816: National Bank chartered 341 

Admission of Indiana 342 

[Supplementary Reading.— (^ 315) Lives of Madison by Riveif and 
day; Madison Papers; Hildreth, vi. 618; !^chouler,'\\. 279; Higqinsou, 
360. (§ 316) Hildreth, vi. 180 ; Schouler, ii. 301; Ridpath, 389 ; 'Tucker 
ii. 349; Dicight, 119. (§317) Hildreth, vi. 251; Schouler, ii. 332; 
Cooley's Michigan. 160, 186; Ridpath, 390; Bryant and Gay, iv. 182. 
(§ 318) The battles and incidents of the war which follows are in the 
volumes which follow : consult the indices ; Hildreth, ii ; Bryant and, 
Gay, iv; McMafster. iii; Schoxiler, ii ; Tucker, ii, iii ; Ridpath; Lo.ssinp's 
Field-book of the War of 1812 ; Bartlett, iii ; lugersoll's Second War irith 
Oreat Britain; William's Capture of Washington ; Shaler's Kentucky, 
158; Coo]ej's MicJiigan, 163; Robert's iVew Yoi-k, 508; Cable's Creoles'of 
Louisiana, 185 ; Parton's Jackson, i. 435, ii. II. (JJ ;j29) Hildreth, vi. 
545 ; Hiygimon, 369 ; Schouler, ii. 425 ; Dicight; Goodrich's RecoUec 
iions, ii. 9; Bryant and Gay, iv. 226; Tucker, iii. 129. (t^^BO) The battles 
and incidents of the naval and lake war, in addition to the authorities 
under g 318, are in Cooper's Naval Histm-y ii ; Koosevell's Naval War of 
1812 ; Mackenzie's Pei-ry and Decatur: Porter's Life of Porter ; Gogges- 
hall's History of American Privateers. (§ 341) Hildreth, vi. 589, 607; 
Tucker, iii. 124, 166; JSchouler. ii. 447; Johnston, 81. (i^ 342) Bon- 
ner's Louisiana; Gayarre's Louisiana; DiUou'n Indiana; Goodrich and 
Tuttle's Indiana; Encyclopaedia articles on Louisiana and Didiana.] 



(4) Monroe's Administrations: 1817-25. 

846. The New President. — President Monroe was not a very 
able party leader, but he was probably a better President for 
his time for just that reason. He had been a RevoliTtionary 
officer, Governor of Virginia, the Minister to France when 
Louisiana was bought (§ -jOI), and Secretary of War; so that 
he was not an unknown man. But the new feeling of national 
strength made it good that the people should cease to do this 
or that simply because they loved and admired Hamilton or 
Jefferson or any other party leader, and should learn to su])- 
port or oppose measures according to their probable influence 
on the welfare of the country. Monroe was a safe President, 
who was not likely to do rash or foolish things; but people 



1817] MONROE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 148 

did not admire him or dislike him enough to have their at- 
tention called off from really public affairs. 

347. The New Leaders. — At the same time, new men were 
coming into public life. Monroe's Cabinet (§ 737) had several 
very able members. John Quincy Adams, the Secretary of State, 
the son of John Adams, of j\Iassachusetts, was one of the 
ablest. Another was John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, 
the Secretary of War, one of the ablest men in argument that 
the country has yet produced. Another was William H. 
Crawford, of Georgia, the Secretary of the Treasury, a very 
hard worker, aud much liked at the South. There were others 
outside of the Cabinet. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, the leader 
of the House of Representatives, was a man of great eloquence, 
ingenious in contriving ways to help Congress out of difficul- 
ties, and a man whom other men were apt to like very 
strongly; and he was popular, further, because he had done 
most to rouse the people to resist Great Britain in the 
War of 1812. Daniel Webster, at first of N^ew Hampshire 
aud afterwards of Massachusetts, had already shown that ho 
was even a more eloquent speaker than Clay. Finally, 
outside of both Cabinet and Congress, was Andrew Jackson, 
of Tennessee, who had won the battle of New Orleans (§ 337). 
His case was different from that of all the others. They had 
risen in public life by education or by showing that they had 
some form of ability peculiar to themselves. He had risen 
by showing that he was prompt and vigorous in dealing with 
unexpected difficulties, and by the belief of a great many that 
he really cared more for the interests of the people than other 
leaders of his time did. 

348. The Era of Good Feeling. — There was now but one 
party, for the Federalists either ceased voting or called them- 
selves Republicans (§ 343). And so this period is often called 
the "era of good feeling," though it turned out finally that 
the only political party, the Republican or Democratic, was 
really divided into two parties, though they had no sep- 
ai*ate names as yet. Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected 
in 1820 without opposition, for a second term, though one 



144 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1820 

electoral vote was cast against Monroe, and several against 
Tompkins, so luat they might not have the unanimous vote 
which has never been given to any one but Washington. 

349. Population. — The Census of 1820 showed that the 
population of the country was nearly ten millions, a large in- 
crease since 1810 (§ 320). It was spreading, too, over the 
western territory. The steamboat had made a change in the 
movements of the people. When a man had been toiling 
painfully in a lumbering stage-coach or on horseback, over a 
muddy, sticky country road, at the rate of six or seven miles 
an hour, it was a wonderful change to step on board a steam- 
boat and move off silently, easily, and three times as rapidly. 
Men began to think differently, to plan things which had 
been impossible before, and to change their homes more 
readily. Besides, the steamboats cari-ied crops so much more 
cheaply that a western farmer, if his farm was anywhere near 
a river, could now send his crop to market and sell it for some- 
thing more than the cost of carrying it. Men had now some 
object in removing to the West, for they could make not only 
a living out of their farms, but something over. And thus 
this period saw the beginning of a new movement toward the 
West, and the formation of new States. 

350. New States. — Population grew so rapidly that five new 
States were formed during Monroe's Administrations. (1) 
Mississippi (1817) was a part of the territory which had been 
claimed by Georgia. It came in as a slave State. (2) Illi- 
nois (1818) was the third State formed from the northwest 
territory (§ 246), and it therefore came in as a free State. 
(3) Alabama (1819) was also part of the old Georgia country, 
and came in as a slave State. (4) Maine (1820) had been a 
part of Massachusetts ; it had grown to have interests of its 
own, and was now admitted as a free State, with the con- 
sent of Massachusetts. (5) ISIissouri (1821) was the second 
State formed out of the Louisiana purchase (§ 301), and came 
in as a slave State. 

351. Negro Slavery. — The admission of Missouii brought 
about the first thoroughly angry discussion as to slavery. 



1820J MONROE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 145 

Negro slavery had disappeared in most of the States north of 
Mason and Dixon's line (§ 79). In the Southern States it 
had become profitable througli the invention of the cotton- 
gin (§ 281) ; people in general had not yet come to see how 
much it injured the prosperity of a country, and those who 
owned slaves were influential men, wlio took care that nothing 
should be done to hurt slavery. This one difference had 
already begun to divide the country into two sections, the 
North and the South, and the division was to go on faster and 
further in coming years. 

362. The Sections in Congress. — This difference hud begun 
to have its effect whenever a new law was proposed in Con- 
gress : whatever law Avas of advantage to one section was very 
apt to be of disadvantage to the other, and one section or the 
other felt aggrieved, no matter in what shape the law was 
put. Of course, then, each section wished to control Con- 
gress. Most new settlers preferred the free States, where 
work would not be dishonorable ; and so the free States 
increased in population more rapidly than the slave States. 
The States are represented in the House of Eepresentatives 
according to their population (§ 733), so that the growing 
free States would always control that part of Congress. In 
the Senate, each State has an equal vote (§ 732) ; and a new 
slave State, even with a smaller population, would have as 
large a vote as a free State. The only opportunity of the 
South, then, was in the Senate, and it took care to balance 
each new free State by bringing in a new slave State. 

353. The Case of Missouri. — There was no difficulty as 
long as the new States were formed from tlie territory east of 
the Mississippi, where slavery had already either been for- 
bidden or permitted. When Missouri applied for admission 
as a slave State, there was difficulty at once, for each section 
wanted the new State. It was necessary that both Houses of 
Congress should agree to admit it. The House of Eepre- 
sentatives, which the free States controlled, declared that 
Missouri should not come in as a slave State ; that it had 
never been intended that there should be slavery west of the 



146 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1823 

Mississippi. The Senate, wliicli the slave States controlled, 
declared that the Constitution had left each State the right to 
settle such matters for itself ; and that it was utterly wrong 
for Congress to interfere with the question of slavery in the 
new State, Nothing could be; done, for the two Houses could 
not agree ; but the two sections were evidently becoming 
more divided on the question. 

354. The Missouri Comprom ise. — After several years of angry 
discussion. Congress finally settled this difficulty by passing 
what was called the Missouri Compromise of 1820, contrived 
by Clay. It was in two parts. (1) Missouri was to be ad- 
mitted as a slave State ; in this respect the South was to gain 
its point. But slavery was to be forever forbidden in the 
remainder of the Louisiana purchase, north of the main 
southern boundary of Missouri (latitude 36° 30') from the 
Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, and (2) Maine, 
which had applied for admissi(m about at the same time, was 
to be admitted as a free State ; in these respects the North 
was to gain its point. The question of slavery was thus put 
at rest for some twenty-five years (§ 453). 

355. The Florida Purchase.— There was nuich satisfaction 
when a treaty was made v/ith Spain for the purchase of 
Florida (1819). It removed the danger of war with Spain, 
which was always possible while Spanish governors were inter- 
fering with American interests. As part of the price of 
Florida, the United States gave up to Spain the claim to 
Texas, which had been supposed to be a part of the Louisiana 
pui'chase. 

356. The Monroe Doctrine. — By this time, Spain's former 
colonies in North and South America were rebelling and 
forming independent governments. Spain was too weak to 
force them to submit ;,but there were suspicions that other 
European governments meant to help Spain to conquer 
them. In one of his Annual Messages (1823), President 
Monroe took occasion to say that the Government of the 
United States would consider any such effort as an act 
unfriendly to the United States. This meant that thy 



1823] MONROE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 147 

American navy would take means to stop any European expe- 
dition of the kind ; and, as Great Britain agreed with the 
United States most heartily, it was not long before the 
governments interested declared that they had never meant to 
help Spain. From that time the policy of not permitting 
any independent American nation to be brought back again 
to the condition of a European colony, and of not interfering 
in the affairs of Europe, has been known as the Monroe 
Doctrine, and has been the settled policy of the country. 

357. The National Road. — One of the difficulties which 
had done most to keep the country poor, was the exceeding 
badness of the roads (§ 261). Most of them were made by 
scraping up a little dirt from the sides of the road into the 
middle of it : in dry weather they were dusty, and in wet 
weather they became mud-holes, through Avliich wagons or 
stages could scarcely travel. All through this period, Con- 
gress was appropriating money for the construction of a 
National Road, carefully made, with hard surface, easy grades 
and good bridges, running westward from Cumberland, in 
northwestern Maryland. It was meant in part for the cen- 
venience of emigrants, and in part for the purpose of showing 
the people how a good road ought to be made. It was gradu- 
ally extended as far as Indiana, when the introduction of the 
railroad made it needless to build it any farther. Many other 
roads were built or improved by the United States during 
this period. 

358. The Erie Canal. — Freight can be carried more cheaply 
by canal than by ordinary I'oads, and there was a strong desire 
for more canals. The largest, the Erie Canal, was finished 
(1825) by the State of New York, after eight years of work 
and strong opposition from those who thought it a waste of 
money. De Witt Clinton had carried it through, and his 
opponents called it " Clinton's Big Ditch." But when it was 
found that it could carry freight from Buffalo to New York 
for one-tenth of the amount formerly paid, and that a stream 
of trade from the Great Lakes was pouring through the new 
canal to New York City, opposition ceased, and other States 



148 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1824 

began cutting canals, the Federal Government aiding many 
of them. 

359. Protectire and Revenue Tariffs. — Much of the expense 
of the Federal Government is met by taxes, or duties, laid on 
imports; and as to the rates of such duties there are two 
opinions. (1) Those who believe in Protection wish the du- 
ties on imports, especially on manufactured articles, to be 
made high, so that the imj)orter, after paying tlie duties, shall 
be compelled to charge a higher price for his goods. Then, 
they argue, American manufacturers will be able to sell their 
goods at a profit; and the workmen employed in their manu- 
factories will get good wages, and will buy the productions of 
the farmers of the country, so that all will prosper together. 
A list of duties on this principle is called a Protective Tariff, 
for it is meant to protect, or increase, home manufactures. 
(2) Opposed to Protection is what is commonly called Free 
Trade, but it does not mean that there are to be no taxes 
on imports. Those who support it insist that the duties 
should be made only higli enough to provide for the expenses 
of the government; that, if Protection is profitable, it is 
only for the few manufacturers Avho are interested, not for 
their workmen or the country; Uiat the country will pi'oduce 
naturally what it can make the most money out of: and that, 
if we use taxation to bring about productions which would 
not come naturally, we are making all the peoi)le pay part of 
their number for engaging in unprofitable employments. A 
list of duties which pays no attention to Protection is called 
a Revenue Tariff', since it is meant only to provide revenue 
for the government. 

360. The Tariff of 1824.— The Piotcctionist policy began 
to increase in favor with the people during this period. They 
remembered their experience in the war, when they had no 
manufactories, and British ships blockaded their coast, so 
that they could bring little from abroad; and they were will- 
ing to undertake protection in order to meet the complaints 
of American manufacturers (§ 340). Congress adopted a Pro- 



1825] JOHN QVINGT ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 149 

tective Tariff (1824), aud thus began the struggle for and 
against Protection, which has not yet ended. 

361. The Presidential Election. — At the end of Monroe's 
second term (18-24) the Presidential election fell into complete 
confusion, for all the candidates, and all the voters, claimed 
to be Eepublicans. Calhoun was elected Vice-President with 
little opposition, Adams, Jackson, Crawford, and Clay 
(§ 347) were candidates for the Presidency, and none of 
them received a majority of the electoral votes. The House 
of Representatives was then to choose a President from the 
three highest names on the list, Jackson, Adams, and Craw- 
ford. In the House election, the friends of Clay voted for 
Adams, and he was elected President. 

[Supplementary Beading. — (§ 346) Gilman's JS/b/iroey Schouler , '\\\. 10; 
Goodrich, ii. 127; Higginson, 884. (§ 347) Morse's Adams; Quincy's 
Adams; Adams's Memoirs; Von Hoist's (jalhoun; Col ton's Clay; 
Schurz's Clay; Curtis's Webster; Lodge's Webster; Sumner's Jackson; 
Pai'ton's Jackson. (§ 350) Edwards's Illinois; Davidson's Illinois; 
Brewer's J.to6«??«« / Abbott's ^cwVie; Williamson's 7ltf«i/ie / Davis aud 
Durrie's Missouri. (§ 351) Von Hoist, i. 340. (§ 352) Von Hoist, i. 356. 
(§§ 353-354) Hildreth, vi. 661, 687; Schouler, iii. 147; Tucker, iii. 262. 
269; Von Hoist, i. 356; Bryant and Gay, iv, 262; Ridpath, 420. (g 355) 
Hildreth, vi. 642, 658; Schouler, iii. 130, 176, 189. (5^ 356) Schouler, iii. 
279; Tucker, iii. 361; Webster, m. 200; Bryant and Gay. iv. 279; N. A. 
Rev., May, 1880, and Sept., 1881. (§ 357) Hildreth, ii. 581, iii. 660; 
Schouler, iii. 249; Harper's Mag., Nov., 1879. (§ 358) Hildreth, vi. 
208, 592; Schouler, iii. 49; Higginson, 420; Roberts's New TTork, 524. 
(§ 359) Roberts's Government Revenue ; Thompson's National Economy ; 
Hoyt's Protection; McKean's Carey' s Social Science ; Humner's Essays 
and Protection in the United States; Perry's Political Economy, 461; 
George's Protection or Free Trade; Laughlin, 289; Taussig's Protection 
to Young Industries.^ 



(5) John Quincy Adams's Administration: 1835-29. 

562. The American System — Clay became Adams's Secretary 
of State, and the two supported warmly the system begun by 
Congress in the Tariff of 1824 (§360). Four years later, a 
new tariff of still higher duties was adopted; and, as the rev- 
enue became larger, it was spent in improving roads, con- 
structing canals, and deepening rivers and harbors. This 



16U THE STATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1828 

union of a Protective Tariff and internal improvements, was 
then known as the " American System.'' 

363. Northern Opposition. — Tliose who opposed the 
"American System" at the Xorth did so u\ the Ijcliel" thai. 
no matter how attractive such a system may seem, or how 
much it may be meant for the good of the whole couutr}^ in 
practice the profits of it always go to those who have most 
influence over Congress ; that the taxation thus falls on every 
one while the benefits come to a few; and that, while the 
employer might share these profits with his Avorkmen, he has 
never been known to do so. They felt, then, that, in oppos- 
ing a Protective Tariff, they were defending the unprotected 
mass of the people against the selfish interests of a few. 

304. Soutliern Opposition. — The opposition to Protection 
took a different sha})e in the Soutli. Labor in the South was 
done by slaves, generally ignorant and stupid, who could not 
have handled machinery without ruining it; and so there 
were very few Southern manufactories. Southern men felt 
that they paid their share of taxation, while all the benefits 
went to Northern manufacturers; and they opposed a Protec- 
tive Tariff with increasing anger. 

3(>o. Tlie Democratic Party. — Toward the end of this 
i)eriod, all in the North ami South who disliked the '•' Ameri- 
can System" as a benefit to a few, or who thought that the 
Federal Government's taxing power had been used too much 
for private benefit, or who liked Andrew Jackson as a heartier 
friend of the people than other leaders were, began to unite 
into a party. At first they were known as "■ Jackson men," 
afterwards as the Democratic Party. 

36G. The National Repnblicans. — In much the same way, 
those who believed in the " American Sj-stem" as resulting in 
national benefit began to be known as " Adams men," after- 
wards as the National Republican Party. Early in the next 
period, this name was changed to that of the AVhig Party 
(S 397). 

367. The Presidential Election. — At the end of Adams's 
term (18:i8), the Democrats nominated Jackson for President 



1828] JOHN qumCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. l5l 

and Calhoun for Vice-President. The National Republicans 
nominated Adams and Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania. In 
the election, Jackson and Calhoun received a majority of the 
electoral votes, and were elected. 

368. The Railroad. — People had now become well enough 
used to the more rapid and cheap travel by steamboat and 
canal, to be still more discontented with the discomforts of 
their roads. It had been known for many years that a horse 
could draw a heavier load, and do it more rapidly and cheaply, 
on rails than on a bare road. Plans began to be made for 
systems of horse-railroads to connect the principal cities; and 
one, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, was intended to be a 
horse-railroad all tlie way from Baltimore to Cincinnati. It 
was not until just at the end of this perit)d that Stephenson 
invented the locomotive (§ 372) ; but it so happened that, be- 
fore the locomotive was invented, the railroads for the horse- 
railroad had been begun, and it was only necessary to use 
locomotives instead of horses. 

369. Growth of the Country. — The twenty-eight years 
whose history has been given in this chapter had seen a 
great change in the position of the country. At the begin- 
ning, it was weak and was believed to be weaker than it really 
was ; its national government was begging other nations to 
be just to its citizens, and was receiving notliing but contempt 
or new injustice as a reply; and the political party which 
controlled the country thought honestly that it was for the 
best interests of the country that the national government 
should be made weak. At the end, it was a strong, self-reli- 
ant country ; its war-vessels were as powerful as any that 
were then afloat, and they had the reputation gained by their 
gallant sea-fights of the recent war; other nations knew that 
the United States would no longer submit to injustice of any 
sort, and took care to act accordingly; and the people them- 
selves had a new pride in the national government whose flag 
was now a sure protection to them at home and abroad. All 
this was growth in the true direction: it was necessary that 
national feeling should grov/ stronger as the country became 



162 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1828 

more populous and more widely settled, in order that it 
might remain one country. But the Missouri case {§ 353) 
was an indication of the different course of the next thirty 
years, when the influence of slavery was to be thrown against 
the new national feeling. 

370. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this 
period are as follows : 

1817-21: Monroe's First Term §346 

1817: Admission of Mississippi 350 

1818: Admission of Illinois 350 

1819: Admission of Alabama 350 

Treat}' for the Purchase of Florida 355 

1820: Admission of Maine 350 

The Missouri Compromise 354 

1821: Admission of Missouri 350 

1821-25: Monroe's Second Term 348 

1822: Comrress begins the construction of roads 357 

1823: The'Monroe Doctrine 356 

1824: A Protective Tariff adopted 360 

Disputed Presidential Election 367 

1825: The Erie Canal finished 358 

1825-29: John Quincy Adams's Term 371 

1826: Deaths of Jefferson and John Adams 186 

1S27: Horse-railroads introduced 368 

1828: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad begun 368 

A new Protective Tariff adopted 362 

Formation of new parties 365, 366 

[Supplementary Reading. — Schouler, iii. 326; Ridpath, 423; Hi'gginson, 
406; Von Ilolst, i. 3*:<8; Johnston, 96; Bryant and Gay, iv. 282: Tucker, 
iii. 372, 409; Sumner's Jackson, 202; Morse's Adams, 189; Benton, i. 
32, 54. (§ 368) Hadley, 3 ; Adams, 37; Johnson, iii. 1511.] 



CHAPTER V. 

THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS : 1839-49. 

(1) Jackson's Administrations: 1829-37. 

371. The New President. — Andrew Jackson was a very dif- 
ferent person from those who had hitherto filled the office of 
president. They had been educated men, long trained in 
public life, and quiet and dignified in manner. His life had 
been spent on tlie frontier, in farming, or fighting battles 
with Indians or British, or duels with enemies among his 
neighbors; he had little education and a violent temper; and 
his manners were odd. But he was intensely honest; no 
power or influence could make him consent to anything which 
he believed to be of disadvantage to the people; and he re- 
sisted any such measure with such persistence that the com- 
mon name for him was " Old Hickory." He was a crabbed 
old soldier, who was determined to do right, but to do right 
in his own way; and he had little respect for dignity in a man 
unless the man had other good qualities than dignity. He 
did the country some harm, and a great deal of good; but this 
change of presidents, which seemed shocking to many persons 
at the time, was only part of a general change among the 
people. 

372. The Locomotive. — Until this time, no one had been 
able to invent a means for drawing wagons by steam. It had 
been intended to use horses (§ 348), though some had thought 
of a stationary engine to pull cars, somewhat like our cable 
railways. Just at the beginning of Jackson's first term, 
Stephenson, in England, invented a means by which a steam- 
engine, placed on a car of its own, could drive the wheels and 

153 



154 TBE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1829 

move both car and engine along the rails: this is called a loco- 
motive engine, since it can change its place, and is thus differ- 
ent from a stationary engine. 

373. American Railways. — The news of Stephenson's in- 
vention was brouglit to the United States, and xlniericans at 
once attempted to make locomotives of their own. They 
were clumsy and unserviceable, and it was more than a year 
before one of the Stephenson locomotives was obtained. 
Even that was found to be unsuited to American roads and 
climate; and a better form was soon devised. Since then, 
we have built our own locomotives. 

374. EflFects of the Railroad. — The introduction of the loco- 
motive changed the whole life of the people at a single step. 
Poor roads had compelled Americans to move slowly, when 
they were eager to move quickly; and the enormous extent of 
their country had been rather troublesome than valuable to 
them. They had now found the instrument which they 
needed. When they could move five or six times as rapidly 
as before, and that in all weathers, thousands of tilings which 
had before been impossible became possible; and the people 
began to act, think, and speak differently. Railroads were 
built in every direction; and, wherever they went, they 
changed the life of the people, opened up new country to set- 
tlers, and made settlements possible by currying crops cheaply 
and surely. The United States thus had all the advantages 
of a small country, w-ith the wealth of a large one: from New 
York, the railroad takes passengers to Chicago in the same 
time that the stage-coach took them to Philadelphia. Before 
1830, men thought that it would take three hundred years for 
settlements to reach the Rocky Mountains: the railroad did 
the work in thirty years. 

376. Anthracite CoaK — The railroad brought other discov- 
eries. There were great fields of anthracite or hard coal in 
Pennsylvania; but wood had been generally used as fuel. It 
was supposed to be impossible to make this "iron stone" 
burn. It was now so mnch needed that the proper way to 
make it burn was soon found; and it contained so much heat- 



1836] jAOKaON'S ADMimSTHATIOm. 165 

ing power in so small u space that its use aided locomotives 
and steamboats very much. 

376. The Screw Propeller. — About the same time (1836), 
Ericsson, in England, introduced the screw propeller. It was 
not thought to be a great invention at first; but it, with im- 
provements in steam boilers and engines, has since made ocean 
navigation safer and more rapid. It has put an end, also, U) 
the old sailing-navies, bringing in steam war-vessels in their 
place. But Fulton's old side-wheeler still keeps its place as 
the best for rivers, 

377. Other Inventions. — This was a period of great inven- 
tions. One of these was McCormick's reaping-machine, from 
which grew all the present wonderful agricultural machinery: 
such machinery has made farming far more easy than before, 
and has made Western lands more profitable. Another was 
Colt's revolving pistol, wliich has made a change in the form 
of fire-arms. One of the most useful was the friction match, 
Avhich now took the place of the former clumsy ways of ob- 
taining fire: hardly anything has done more to increase the 
comfort of daily life than this one invention. 

378. Growth in the East. — East of Pittsburgh, the map of 
the United States was then much as it is now, though some 
of our 23resent manufacturing cities, such as Lowell and 
Paterson, were not then on the maps; but all the cities have 
since grown larger, and the railroads more numerous. Busi- 
ness had begun to feel the effects of the railroad : men were 
now moving rapidly, instead of slowly, from one place to an- 
other, and were beginning forms of work which had been im- 
possible before. 

379. Growth in the West. — In the Western States the most 
wonderful groAvth of our history had fairly begun. Steam- 
boats were carrying settlers and trade along the Ohio, the Mis- 
sissippi, the smaller rivers, and the great lakes ; and railroads 
in every direction were being planned. Almost all the pres- 
ent western cities, east of the Mississippi, had now appeared, 
though they were still small; but the steamboat had given 
them the beginning of that growth which the railroad was 



156 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [183? 

soon to make still more rapid. When tlie first steamboat ap- 
peared at Fort Dearborn, at the end of Jackson's first term, 
there was no town there; six years afterward, it had become 
the flourisliing town of Chicago, and a line of eight splendid 
steamers was running to it from Buffalo and Detroit. North 
and west of Missouri, the country was still a wilderness. 

380. Population.— The Census of 1830 showed that the 
population of the country was nearly thirteen millions, an in- 
crease of three millions in ten years (§ 349). Immigration 
from Europe had begun, though it was not nearly so large as 
it became during the next period (§ 4G9). The railroad and 
steamboat made it easier for immigrants to reach the fertile 
West, and to make a living after the}' got there. 

381. New States — Arkansas, a part of the Louisiana pur- 
chase (§ 301), was admitted as a slave State 1836. Michigan, 
the fourth State formed from the northwestern territory 
(§ 246), was admitted as a free State (1837). These two ad- 
missions raised the number of States to 26, just twice the 
number of the ''old thirteen." 

382. The Black Hawk War. — As settlers began to pour into 
the farther regions of the northwest, the Indians of Illinois, 
Wisconsin, and Iowa, led by Black Hawk, revolted, and were 
only put down after hard fighting. As a result, they were 
forced to give up most of their lands, and move farther west- 
ward. 

383. The Seminole War. — A more serious war M'as with the 
Seminole Indians, in Florida, who were led by Osceola. It 
lasted for many years, for the Indians took refuge in the great 
swamps and Everglades, where it was very difficult to find 
them ; and from these they made sudden attacks on small part- 
ies of soldiers. Finally, they, too, were beaten and removed 
beyond the Mississippi. 

384. Edncation. — The present public-school system had 
now been begun, and has since come to be recognized as a 
necessary part of American life. It has now come to be the 
rule that every man was to have a vote (§298): and it was 
seen that the State must in self-defence see to it that, bo far 




•ake 
Winnipeg 



n£,-itvi(1e West 15 from Wasliin^tuii 10 



1837] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 157 

as possible, every man is taught enough to enable him to vote 
wisely. Massachusetts had made the system better still, by 
beginning the system of normal schools, for training public- 
school teachers. Colleges were larger and more numerous; 
there were now more than sixty of them in the country. 

385. Newspapers. — Up to this time, newspapers had been 
costly, slow in all their ways, and read by only a few of the 
people (§ 260). Now came the newspapers of small price, 
large circulation, and great enterprise and activity in collect- 
ing news. The 8i(n and Herald, of New York City, were the 
first of these, followed shortly by the Times and Tribune, and 
by similar newspapers in other cities. 

386. Literature. — One of the strongest signs of vigorous 
life in a people is the appearance of great writers; and this, 
too, was not lacking. There had been few American authors 
of ability up to this time, except in political writing. Just 
about this time the number of American authors suddenly in- 
creased, including great poets, such as Whittier, Longfellow, 
Poe, and Holmes; and great historians, such as Bancroft and 
Prescott. Hawthorne began publishing his wonderful stories, 
many authors of lower rank appeared, and those who had 
been known before, such as Bryant, Irving, and Cooper, 
ceased to copy English writers, and wrote in a new spirit. 

387. Increase of Wealth. — The railroad opened up so 
many new kinds of work, and so many new ways in which 
work might be profitable, that for the first time in the his- 
tory of the country men began to be comfortable, to live eas- 
ily, and to feel less anxiety as to the future. As population 
increased, and with it the number of buyers, manufacturers 
could afford to use better methods, make more articles at the 
same cost, and sell each article for less money. And so men 
were better off on both sides : they made more money, and 
they got more for the money when they spent it. 

388. Social Changes. — As the people began to live more 
easily, they began to dislike many things of which they had 
heretofore thought little. The prisons had been managed, 
as in other Qountries at that time^ in a brutal way. One 



158 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1837 

State had used an old copper-mine as a prison, putting the 
prisoners under ground, and most of the States used whij)- 
ping and torture, under whjch prisoners grew worse. Now, 
the penitentiary system was introduced: under it, labor took 
the place of whipping, and some eifort was made to reform 
criminals. The foolish and cruel system of imprisonment for 
debt also began to be abolished. American sailors on war- 
vessels were still punished by being lashed on the naked back 
with a cat-of-nine-tails; but the feeling against the practice, 
which finally put an end to it (1850), was already evident. 
Drunkenness had been a great vice: it had been considered 
quite proper for a gentleman to get drunk after dinner, and 
not very improper for a clergyman to own a distillery. From 
about this time dates the dislike to intoxication, though it 
was not then nearly so strong a dislike as it has since become. 
It would be impossible to name all the changes in the feelings 
of the people which began during this period. 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§371) Pavton's Jr«cA;soH/ Suiiuier's Jack- 
son ; You HoM'a Cal/touH J- Hunt's Livingsio7i ; H/'f/f/inson, i'Sl; Tucker, 
iv. 287; Vo7i Hoist, ii. 29; Ridpath, 426. (§ 372) Adams, 5; Hadley. 9; 
Bislwp, ii. 91; Eighty Years, i. 191. (§ 31^) Adams. 36; Brovrn's First 
Locomotive in America; Bishop, ii. 330, 346, 363, 378; Eighty Years, i. 
243. (§ 374) Adams, 71; Hadley, 16, 25, 33; Eighty Years, i. 192, 263; 
Atkiuson's Distribution of Products, 75. ;§ 375) Bishop, ii. 117, 185, 
203, 260, 410; Eighty Years, ii. 120, 248. (§ 376) Eighty Years, i. 241; 
Johtison, iii. 743. (^ 377) Bishop, ii. 390: 2'ighty Years, i. 35; BisJiop, 
ii. 406, 737; Eighty Years, i. 33; Bi-shoj). ii. 407. (§ 381) Von Hoist, ii. 
139; Benton, i. 627; Laiiman's Red Book of Michigan ; Cooley's Michi- 
gnn. (§ 382) Bryant and Gay, iv. 295; Ridpath, 429; Von Hoist, ii. 143; 
(^ d8S)'Higginson, 453; Bryant and Gay, iv. 350; Tucker, iv. 251, 269; 
Ridpath, 431, 437; Giddinff's Exiles of Florida. (§ 384) Schovler, iii. 
526; Eighty Years, ii. 355, 387. (§ 385) Schouler. iii. 528; Eighty Years. 
ii. 302; Hudson, 349. (§ 386) Schouler, iii. 528; Ricliardson, i. 276, 399, 
403, 459. (§ 388) Eighty Years, i. 435: Schouler, iii. 518; Benton, i. 291; 
Griffis's Perry, 265.] 

389. The Abolitionists. — While such changes of feeling 
were going on, it was impossible that people should continue 
to feel as they had done about negro slavery, and it came in 
for its first serious attack. ]\Iany good people had hoped that 
slavery would disappear gradually now. William Lloyd Gar- 



1831] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 169 

risou, a Boston newspaper editor, called for the " mimediate 
abolition" of slavery (1831); and those who agreed with him, 
called Abolitionists, formed an Anti-Slavery Society. As 
their societies multiplied, the South became very much 
alarmed. The alarm was increased by an unsuccessful negro 
insurrection in Virginia; and thus there were new reasons for 
ill-feeling between the two sections (§ 352). 

390. Foreign Affairs. — The United States Government 
was now able to take a firmer tone in foreign affairs than it 
had ever done before. Its claims -against France and other 
countries for injuries done to American commerce thirty 
years before were at last paid; though the American navy 
had to be sent, in some cases, as a collecting agent. It has 
never since been difficult for the United States to obtain re- 
spect and attention to such claims; and it has even been pos- 
sible to obtain a settlement of such matters by arbitration, 
that is, by umpires (§ 649). 

391. Political Affairs. — All this sudden and peaceful de- 
velopment of wealth and comfort belonged to the social life 
of the people:. the political history of these eight years was 
one of almost continual excitement. When President Jack- 
son believed that a measure was injurious to the people, he 
attacked it as if it were an enemy of his own, regardless of 
the feelings of his opponents, who were quite as confident 
that they were right; and so Jackson's friends and enemies 
accused one another of almost every crime imaginable. The 
President's principal struggles were with the former office- 
holders, the United States Bank, the ^'American System," 
and the Southern nullificationists (§ 400). 

392. The Office-holders. — Jackson began the general prac- 
tice of turning out the civil office-holders of the opposite 
party, post-masters, clerks, marshals, and otiiers, no matter 
how faithful they had been as public servants, and putting his 
supporters in their places. All political parties followed his 
example for over forty years, until it was found that the effects 
on the public service were exceedingly bad, and efforts were 
made to put a stop to the system (§ 673), 



160 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1832 

393. The Bank of the United States,— Jackson believed 
that Ji National Bank (§ 341) was uunecesgary, and that its 
establishment was only a plan to enrich a few men by grant- 
ing them the use of the public moneys for nothing. He 
stated this belief in his Messages to Congress; his supporters 
sided with him, and the country was divided by the question 
of " Bank or no Bank." His opponents in Congress were 
strong enough to pass an Act to continue the Bank for twenty 
years (183"-?); but the President vetoed it (§741); and the 
friends of the Bank in Congress were not numerous enough 
to pass the Act over the veto. 

394. The Removal of the Deposits. — The next year the 
President ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to cease de- 
positing the public revenues in the Bank (§ 341); and now the 
friends of the Bank in Congress were not numerous enough 
to forbid this "removal of the deposits." Little by little, 
Jackson gained a majority in Congress; and the Bank gave 
up the struggle and ceased to be a government in.<titution. 

395. The American System. — Jackson soon came to dislike 
the " American System" of high tariffs and internal im})rove- 
ments (§ 362). He believed that it gave Congress too much 
money to spend; that it made Congress extravagant and 
wasteful in expenditures; and that it taxed the peoi)le for the 
benefit of a few. He used his veto power against bills for 
improving roads and canals, and most of them failed to be- 
come laws; so that the President was successful in this strug- 
gle, also. 

396. The Presidential Election of 1832 — At the end of 
Jackson's first term, the Presidential election took place in the 
midst of the excitement following the veto of the Bank Act 
(§ 393). The National Republicans, who supported the Bank, 
nominated Clay for President, and John Sergeant, of Penn- 
sylvania, for Vice-President. The Democrats, who opposed 
the Bank, nominated Jackson for President, and Martin Van 
Buren, of New York, for Vice-President. After an angry con- 
test, the Democrats were successful, and .Jackson and Van 
Buren were elected. 



1832] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 161 

397. The Whi? Party — In England, the Whig party had 
been distinguished, among other things, for its opposition to 
the king (§ 157). Soon after tlie re-election of the President, 
all his opponents took the name of Whigs, because they con- 
sidered him a tyrant, who used the favor of the people to 
make himself a king in fact, without regard to Congress or 
the laws. For the next twenty years, the party which sup- 
ported Protection, internal improvements, and a National 
Bank of some sort, is known as the Whig party. 

398. The Tariff in the South.— The South had not ceased 
its opposition to Protection (§ 364). When a new protective 
tariff was adopted (1832), the feeling grew stronger. It was 
strongest in South Carolina, where Calhoun was a trusted and 
honored leader. 

399. State Sovereignty and Secession. — If the American 
political system was really one of State sovereignty (§ 296), 
under which each State was to do as it pleased, it followed that, 
if any State believed its people to be unbearably wronged by 
the Union, it had the right to secede, or withdraw from the 
Union. Tliis was the doctrine of Secession. It was upheld 
by most men in the South, even by those who had not the 
least desire to put it in force. They would argue, work, and 
vote against secession: but if their State had voted to secede 
they would have admitted its right to do so, and would have 
felt bound to " follow their State" (§ 502). 

400. Nullification.— Calhoun believed in State sovereignty 
and the right of secession, but loved the Union and did not 
wish to have any secession. To prevent it, he proposed that 
his State, still remaining in the Union, should declare that it 
had never given the Federal Government power to pass a pro- 
tective-tariff law, should declare the law null (without force) 
in South Carolina, and should forbid her citizens to obey it, 
or pay its duties. This was called Nullification; and it was 
adopted by South Carolina about the time of the President's 
re-election. The State convention declared the tariff law null 
and void, forbade the collection of duties at Charleston or 
aiiy other port in the State, and threatened to secede if the 



162 TEE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1836 

law was enforced. It also took steps to prepare an army for 
resistance. 

401. The President's Proclamation. — Jackson disliked the 
tariff law and was then trying to have it repealed. But he 
had sworn to enforce it while it was a law; and he had no no- 
tion of yielding to tiie nullificationists. He sent a naval force 
to occupy Charleston harbor, and collect the duties from any 
vessels entering it. He issued a proclamation, warning the 
people of South Carolina that he intended to enforce the law 
at all hazards, and that blood would flow if they should resist 
it. All men knew that Jackson meant exactly what he said, 
and the warning was taken. It was agreed in South Carolina 
to " suspend'' nullification until after the adjournment of Con- 
gress. 

402. The Compromise Tariff of 1833.— Congress had no de- 
sire to push South Carolina to extremes, and many of its 
members who disliked protection made the nullification diffi- 
culty an excuse for voting against the tariff. Clay contrived 
a " Compromise Tariff," and it Avas passed (1833): under it, 
the duties were to be reduced every year for ten years. South 
Carolina claimed this as a victory, and repealed lier ordinance 
of nullification. But this was the last time that nullification 
was attempted by any State; the next effort was a secession 
by a number of States in 1861 (§ 501). 

403. The Presidential Election of 1S36.— At the end of 
Jackson's second term, the Democrats had an easy victory in 
the Presidential election ; Martin Van Buren, of New York, 
was elected President, and Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, 
Vice-President. The Whigs were in great confusion, and did 
not act together: some voted for Clay, and others for Web- 
ster or other candidates; and it seemed as if the new Demo- 
cratic party would have yery little opposition in future. 

404. Jackson's Snecess. — At the end of his second term, 
Jackson had been completely successful. He had sworn that 
he would put down nullification and maintain the Union: and 
he had done it. He had driven Calhoun and his friends out 
of the Democratic party. He liad driven the Bank of the 



1836] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 163 

United States almost out of existence. He had crippled the 
" American System." He had made Van Buren, wlio had 
supported him in all his political struggles, Vice-President, 
and then President. He had put his supporters into higher 
or lower offices all over the Union. At the end of his second 
term, having won all his political battles, beaten all his ene- 
mies, and rewarded all his friends, Jackson gave up his office 
to Van Buren, and retired from public life to his home in 
Tennessee. 

405. Jackson's Influence. — There can be no doubt that much 
of what Jackson did had good effects; that it has helped to 
make it easier for each of us to say just what he thinks, with- 
out being exposed to influences which might make such a thing 
unpleasant or dangerous; and that he thus helped to spread 
democracy (§ 121). On the other hand, he did much that had 
bad effects, which are still felt. He introduced the system of 
removing office-holders who were not active supporters of the 
Pi-esident. Office-holders were thus compelled not only to 
do the public work for which the country paid them, but to 
work for their party besides. They were always at work to 
have this or that man nominated for office, while the mass of 
the people were busy with their daily work; and thus many 
things have been done apparently by the voice of the people, 
when they have really been contrived and put through by a 
small and active number of office-holders. Nothing could be 
more opposed to democracy than this; and few things have 
done more harm. 

[Supplementary Reading.— (§ 389) Hipginson, 454; Johnston, 122; 
Bryant and Gay, iy. 81(3; mchardnon, i, 247; WiUon, i. 176; Von 
Hoist, ii. 80; Garrison's Garrison; Encyc. Brit., x. 8'y, May's Recollec- 
tions. (§ 390) Schonler, iii. 502; Tucker, iv. 205, 221. 242; Hunt's Liv- 
ingston, 387; Sumner's Jackson, 343; Ridpath, 435: Benton, i. 487, 5^8. 
(§ 392) Schouler, iii. 455; Sumner's Jackson. 145; Parton's Jackson, iii. 
206; Bryant and Gay, iv. 297; Von Hoist, ii. 18; Benton, i. 159. (§ 893) 
Schouler. iii. 469; fucker, iv. 46. 113; Johnston, 109; Bryant and Gay, 
iv. 800; Ridpath, 427: Von Hoist, ii. 31; Benton, i. 158, 187. 232, 251; 
Parton's Jackson, iii. 255, 372. (§ 398) Higginson. 452; Tucker, iv. 146, 
167, 185, 249; Tyler's Taney, 195; Ridpath, 432; Von Hoist ii. 52; 
Benton, i. 373. 471; Parton's Jackson, iii. 499, (§ 400) Bryant and Gay, 
iv. 306.] 



164 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1837 

(2) Van Buren's Administration: 1837-41. 

406. Wildcat Banks. — Bank-notes are merely promises to 
pay money, and are good only so long as the bank which issues 
them is ready to pay money for them if asked to do so. At 
the present time, under the national banking system (§ 565), 
the Government sees to it that the banks shall not issue notes 
unless they have the money with which to pay them. But, 
in Jackson and Van Buren's time, the Government did noth- 
ing of the sort. Many banks had little or no money; but 
they issued notes, and used many of them to buy government 
lands at the West, Such notes were often called "wildcat 
notes" from the cheap pictures with which they were decorated. 

407. The Specie Circular. — Finding that its agents were 
taking too many of these "wildcat notes," the Government 
ordered them to take nothing but specie (gold and silver) for 
lands. The notes were sent back for payment by those who 
had taken them at the West. Some of the banks had no 
money with which to pay; others attempted to raise money 
by selling what propeity they had at lower prices; and this 
brought on what is known as a ''panic," 

408. A Panic, — Under such circumstances, the willingness 
of some to take lower prices than have been usual frightens 
others, who become anxious also to sell before prices fall 
lower still. Thus every one wants to sell, and no one cares to 
buy. Business men become continually more frightened as 
they find themselves unable to pay their debts to others, or to 
get payment of what others owe them. Such a state of affairs 
is called a panic, and is a terrible experience for a country in 
which it occurs. 

409. The Panic of 1837. — Just as ^'an Buren M'as inaugu- 
rated, the failure of one,bank after another to pay its notes 
led to the panic of 1837, tlie Avorst experience of the kind 
which the country had had, ]\Ien who had been rich were 
made poor in a day; and a pile of bank-notes became as worth- 
less as so much waste paper. There was hardly any work to 
be had ; and men who had not been rich suffered distress and 



1840] VAN BVBEN'S ADMINISTRATION. 165 

sometimes starvation. So long as the panic lasted, more than 
a year, the prosperity of the country was stopped. 

410. The Democratic Policy. — Van Buren called Congress 
together, for the government revenues had been deposited in 
banks which had failed, and it was necessary that Congress 
should provide for the support of the government. The 
Whigs urged the re-establishment of a new bank of the 
United States as the best means of avoiding such difficulties 
for the future. Van Buren held to his party's principle, that 
the people ought to help themselves rather than look to the 
government for help. The Democrats had a majority in Con- 
gress; and they followed Van Buren's policy of leaving business 
affairs to settle themselves. They believed that all the diffi- 
culty had come because the government had too much to do 
with banks; and they decided on what was known as the sub- 
treasury system. 

411. The Sub-Treasury System. — Under this system tlie 
public revenues were not to be deposited in any bank. The 
officers who collected them were to take care of them, and 
pay over the money as ordered by the treasury department at 
Washington. They were to give bonds; that is, promises by 
responsible men to make good any loss of money by the col- 
lecting officers. For about three years it was not possible to 
get a majority of both Houses to make this a law; finally it 
was passed (1840), and the government was cut loose from 
banks. 

412. Repudiation. — Many of the States had borrowed money 
to aid in cutting canals and building railroads; and they now 
found it difficult to pay their debts. Some of them refused 
to pay; and, as a State cannot be sued by private persons, this 
"repudiation" of their debts was successful. Some of the 
repudiating States paid their debts afterwards when they 
became more prosperous. 

413. The Census of 1840. — The population of the country 
was noAV about 17,000,000, an increase of more than 4,000,000 
in ten years (§ 380). In spite of the panic, there were many 
evidences of prosperity among the people; and, after the 



166 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1839 

panic was over, business settled down on a better foundation. 
Railroad building was going on rapidly and steadily; and 
messengers carrying parcels from one town to another were 
beginning that form of work which has since grown into the 
great express companies of the present time. 

414. The Abolitionists. — The Southern people had by this 
time become very angry at the way in which the Abolitionists 
preached against the wickedness of slavery; and it was not 
safe for a known Abolitionist to visit the South. Most of the 
Northern people, too, were provoked that Garrison and his 
friends should stir up anger between North and South. At 
first it was a dangerous thing to be a known Abolitionist; 
and many of their meetings were broken up, and their speak- 
ers were mobbed, pelted with stones and eggs, and driven 
away. But, toward the end of this period, they had become 
m.ore numerous, and were left more in peace. Besides, Con- 
gress had done a very foolish thing which roused more sym- 
pathy at the North for the Abolitionists. 

415. The Right of Petition. — Congress is not bound to 
obey any petition that is offered to it; but every man feels 
that Congress is bound to receive any respectful petition 
offered to it on any subject and from any person. Petitions 
for the abolition of slavery were very disagreeable to Southern 
members, and Congress decided not to receive them. Even 
those of the Northern people who did not like the Abolition- 
ists were not disposed to admit that Congress could abolish 
tlie right of petition; and their remonstrances became so 
strong that, after four years of struggle. Congress yielded 
and received all petitions. 

416. Difficulties with (iJreat Britain. — About this time there 
was serious danger, for a time, of war with Great Britain. 
Both nations had claimed, the " Oregon country" west of the 
Rocky Mountains and between California and Alaska. They 
had agreed to hold it together; but American settlers were 
now beginning to flock into it, and many of the people wished 
their government to seize the whole of it. In like manner the 
eastern and northern boundaiy of Maine had never been ex- 



1840] y^^ BUBEN'S ADMINISTRATION. 167 

actly settled. There was a strip of land which each govern- 
ment claimed to own, while it was determined to protect its 
subjects from interference by the other; and there was danger 
of armed conflict at any time. 

417. Ocean Steam Navigation. — A steam vessel, the Savan- 
nah, had already crossed the Atlantic (1819) ; but its fuel had 
given out before its voyage was completed. Now (1838) two 
steamers from England, the Great Western and the Siriiis, 
came into New York harbor almost together. Thus began 
the ocean navigation between Great Britain and the United 
States, which is now carried on by so many magnificent 
steamers, and has spread to all the countries of the world. 

418. The Presidential Election of 1840.— The Whigs had 
now recovered from their former discouragement (§ 396). 
They knew that many doubtful voters were now inclined to 
vote against the party in power from a feeling of dissatisfac- 
tion on account of the 'Miard times;" and they nominated 
William H. Harrison, of Ohio (§ 317), and John Tyler, of 
Virginia, for President and Vice-President. They managed to 
excite great popular feeling for Harrison as a man who had 
been poor and had worked his way to prominence by honesty 
and trustworthiness, and as a brave frontier soldier. They built 
log-cabins, such as he had lived in, and gathered in them to 
make speeches, drink hard cider like Western settlers, and 
sing songs about "Tippecanoe (§ 317) and Tyler, too." The 
Democrats renominated Van Buren and Johnson (§ 396), but 
could excite no such feeling for them, and Harrison and Tyler 
were elected. The Liberty party, composed of anti-slavery 
men, also nominated candidates, but only a few persons voted 
for them. 

419. Clironological Summary. — The leading events of this 
period were as follows: 

1839-33: Jackson's first term § 371 

1830: General removal of office-holders 392 

1831: Abolition of slavery proposed 389 

1833: Black Hawk war 382 

Bank charter vetoed 393 

New protective tariff act passed 398 



168 THE INTRODVCTION OF RAIL HO ADS. [1841 

1832: NuUiticution i^ 400 

1833; Compromise taiiflf 402 

1833-37: Jacksou's second term 403 

1833: Removal of the deposits 394 

First successful American locomotive 373 

1834: McCorinic.k's reapiug-macbiue 377 

1835: Seminole war begins 383 

1836: Anthracite coal used in steamboats 375 

Screw propeller invented 376 

Arkansas admitted 381 

1837: Michigan aduiitted 381 

1841-45: Van Bureu's term 406 

1837: The panic begins 409 

1838: Repudiation of Slate debts 412 

Abolition petitions refused by Congress 415 

Ocean steam navigation begun 417 

1839: Boundary dispute as to JMaine 416 

1840: Sub treasury law passed 411 

[Supplementary Eeading. — (g 406) I'ucker, iv. 296; Sumner's Ameri- 
can Currency. 61. (^ 407) liidpatlt, 437; Benton, i. 676; Bartlett, iii. 
404: Johnston, 121. (§ 408) ^larshall's Economics of Industry, 151. 
(§ 409) Ridpdth, 437; Von Hoht, ii. 179, 195; Benton, ii. 9; Bryant and 
Oay, iv. 312; Sumner's American Currency, 132, Bartlett. iii. 408; John- 
ston, 125. (g 410) Tucker, iv. 304; Voii Hoht. ii. 201; Oilman, 440; 
Bartlett. iii. 413. (§ 411) Tucker, iv. 315. 375, 380; Ridpath, 4:i8; Von 
Hoist, ii. 201; Benton, ii. 164; Johnston, 119, 127, 12!». (^412) }'on Hoist, 
443; Oilman, 440. (i^ 414) Von Hoist, ii. 219; Benton, ii. 154: Bryant 
and Gay. iv. 326; Wilson, i. 274. 874; Johnston, 122, (§ 415l Von 
HoUt, ii. 245; Wilson, i. 307, 423; Bartlett. iii 404; Morse's J". Q. Adams, 
242. 249; Johnston, 123. (^ 416) Tucker, iv. 336, 346, 352. 370; Barrow's 
Oregon, 55. 77: Irving's Bonneville's Adventures. (§ 4r8) Tucker, iv. 
384; Ridpath, 439; Von Hoist, ii 358, 366, 395; Benton, \\ 203; Bryant 
and Gay, iv. 356; Gilman, 441; Bartlett, 414; Johnston, 129.] 

(3) Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations: 1841-45. 

420. Death of Harrison. — President Harrison culled a 
special session of Congress to consider tlie financial needs 
of the country. Before it could meet, Harrison died sud- 
denly, only a little more than a month after his inauguration 
(1841). Vice-President Tyler thus became President. He 
was known to be opposed to most of the measures which the 
Whigs desired, and had oiily acted with the Wliigs because of 
his sympathy with the Nullifiers and his opposition to Jack- 
son (§ 397). The Whigs had nominated him to get votes in 
the South, and now found themselves opposed by the trouble- 
some veto power of the President (§ 741). 



1842] HARRISON'S AND TYLERS ADMINISTRATIONS. 169 

421. The Whigs and the President. — The Whigs in Con- 
gress began by repealing the Sub-Treasury law (§ 411). They 
were then made very angry by the President's veto of two 
Acts to re-establish a National Bank; but their majority was 
not large enough to defeat the veto, and they could do noth- 
ing more than quarrel with the President. They succeeded, 
however, in passing a new tariff (1842), to take the place of 
the compromise tariff of 1833, which was now coming to an 
end (§ 403). It contained the principle of Protection, so that 
the South was opposed to it; but there was no attempt to 
resist or nullify it. 

422. The Treaty of 1842.— All this quarrel took up a great 
deal of the country's time and attention during the ilrst half 
of Tyler's term; but it was really of little importance com- 
pared to other matters. One of tlie most important was the 
arrangement of a treaty with Great Britain (1842). It covered 
three points. (1) Hitherto, a criminal, escaping from one 
country to the other, was safe from arrest. By this treaty, 
each country agreed to arrest such escaping criminals and 
return them to the other country. Similar treaties have since 
been made with most other countries, so that there is now 
scarcely a corner of the civilized world in which a criminal 
can find safe refuge. This is still more the case since the 
ocean telegraph lias come into use (§ 631). The runaway gen- 
erally finds the officers waiting for him when his steamer ar- 
rives. (2) The Maine boundary (§ 416) was fixed by agree- 
ment. (3) The two countries agreed to hold the Oregon 
country together for tlie present (§ 439). • 

423. Texas. — When Mexico rebelled against Spain (§ 356), 
Texas became a part of Mexico; but it soon began to have 
American settlers, mostly Southerners, who brought their ne- 
gro slaves with them. The Mexican Government was a very 
bad one, and the Texans became more and more disobedient, 
until they finally rebelled and set up an independent govern- 
ment. They beat the Mexicans in the battle of San Jacinto 
(1836), and the Mexicans made no further attempt to con- 
quer them. 



170 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1844 

424. Proposed Annexation of Texas. — The Texans niituruUy 
desired to become a part of the American Union, and there 
was a considerable desire in the Southern States for the an- 
nexation of Texas, for its territory was so enormous that it 
was believed that several slave States could be formed out of 
it, so as to help the South to control the Senate (§ 352). All 
these four years were spent in making plans for the annexa- 
tion; and Tyler even made a treaty for annexation (1844), 
which the Senate rejected (§ 732). The question was then 
brought into the Presidential election. 

425. Florida.— The Territory of Florida, bought from 
Spain nearly thirty years before (§ 355), was now admitted as 
a State (1845). Its laws permitted negro slavery. 

426. The Telegraph.— There had been '' telegraphs" be- 
fore; but these were only long lines of signal-posts, at some 
distance from one another, which sent messages altogether by 
sight, one letter at a time. Several inventions had been 
made, in various countries, by Joseph Henry and others, by 
which electricity could transmit messages; and an American, 
Samuel F. B. Morse, united these into the "electro-magnetic 
telegraph." Congress gave him money to construct his first 
line, from Baltimore to Washington; and it proved to be a 
success (1844). This was an invention hardly second to the 
railway. It enabled men to do far more business with the 
same time and trouble. It made it easier to manage a long 
railroad than it had been to manage a short one; and from 
this time, railroads have steadily become longer, better man- 
aged, and more efficient. Lines of telegraph have multiplied, 
until there are now, probably, over 200,000 miles in the 
country. 

427. Copper. — The Indians at last gave up the country 
along Lake Superior (1844) ; and exploration soon found it 
to be rich in copper, a metal most useful in itself, and for the 
making of brass. Companies were formed at once, and cop- 
per-mining became a productive business. 

428. Other Minerals. — At this time, no one had any thought 
of the wealth Avhich has since been developed under the soil 



1844] RARiitSON'S AND fYLEit'8 ADMimSTRATIONS. 171 

of the United States. California, Nevada, and New Mexico 
still belonged to Mexico; and no one knew that they con- 
tained gold, silver and other metals. Salt had been produced 
near Syracuse, in New York; iron in Pennsylvania and some 
other States, and anthracite coal in Pennsylvania. There 
were lead mines in northern Illinois and, eastern Iowa; a few 
small copper mines in Connecticut and New Jersey; and 
some gold in the Southern States. But the wonderful mineral 
wealth of Missouri and Tennessee were almost as unknown as 
the petroleum of Pennsylvania, or the gold and silver of the 
Pacific coast. 

429. Affairs in the Eastern States. — Work and wealth in 
the older-settled States went on so smoothly that there is lit- 
tle that can be said of them. There were some few distur- 
bances. There was an unsuccessful attempt to overturn the 
State government of Rhode Island (1842), by those who were 
there forbidden to vote, because they did not own a sufficient 
amount of property; it is commonly called the Dorr Rebel- 
lion, from the name of its leader. There were " anti-rent'' 
disturbances in New York, along the Hudson River, where 
the descendants of the " patroons" (§ 101) refused to sell 
their lands, and the tenants refused to pay rent; but here 
the State militia restored order. Such occurrences were really 
of little importance, compared with the general peace, order, 
and prosperity of the people. 

430. The Presidential Election of 1844.— The proposed 
annexation of Texas (§ 424) became the great question of the 
Presidential election. For President and Vice-President, the 
Whigs nominated Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen, then of 
New York, both of whom were opposed to annexation. It 
was expected that the Democrats would again nominate 
Van Buren ; but he was also opposed to annexation, and the 
Southern Democrats succeeded in preventing his nomination. 
The Democrats then nominated James K. Polk, of Tennessee, 
and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, who were in favor of 
annexation. The anti-slavery men in the North hated the 
idea of the annexation of more slave territory ; Clay's opposi- 



172 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1845 

tion was not warm enough for them ; and the Liberty party 
(§ 418) nominated candidates of their own. Clay did not 
lose many votes by this ; but he lost enough to lose the great 
State of New York and the election. Polk and Dallas were 
elected. 

431. Annexation of Texas. — "When the result of the election 
was known. Congress passed a resolution making Texas a 
part of the Union (1845). Tyler sent it to the government 
of Texas, which agreed to it ; and annexation was accom- 
plished. Texas was made a State in the following December 
(§ 438). It was the last slave State admitted ; but from this 
time there was scarcely any peace on the subject of slavery 
until slavery was abolished in 1865. 

[Supplementary Reading.— (§ 420) Bryant and Gay, iv. 359 ; Rid- 
path. 440; Bartlett. iii. 415; Von Hoist, ii. 384. (^21) Von Hoist, ii. 
416, 454 : Benton, ii. 317, 331, 357, 376, 417 ; Bartlett, iii. 417; Ridpath, 
441 ; Johnston, 133, 135. (g 432) Benton, ii. 420, 468, 624 : Biurow's 
Oregon, 229 ; Ridpath. 441 ; Bryant and Gay. iv. 365 ; Webster, v. 
78 ; Lodge's Webster, 241 ; Curtis's Webster, ii. 94 ; Bartlett, iii. 420. 
(§ 423) Greeley, i. 147 ; Ridpath, 445 ; Bryant and Gay, iv. 361. 
(i^ 424) Von Hoist, ii. 548 ; Benton, ii. 581 ; Bartlett, iii. 423 ; Draper, i. 
385, 443 ; Jiiy'.s Review of the Mexican War, 11 ; Greeley, i. 151 ; 
Cent. Mag., August, 1884; Johnston, 137. (§ 426) Ridpath, 44(5 ; Prime's 
Morse, 491; Benton, ii. 578; Eirihty Years, ii. 188. 303. 308 ; Cent. Mag., 
April, 1888. (§427) Eighty Years, ii. 48, 51. (§428) Eighty Years, ii. 
18, 61, 6S, 81.' (§ 429) Greene's Rhode Island. 277; Ridpath, 442; 
Bartlett, iii. 421 ; Gilman, 450 ; Webster, vi. 217. Hammond's Silas 
Wright, 480 ; Cooper's Novels, Safanstoe, Chainbearer, and Red- Skins ; 
Ridpath. 444 ; Robert's New York, 623. (§ 430) Von Hoist, ii. 527, 
657 ; Bryant and Gay, iv. 368 ; Ridpath, 446 ; Bartlett, iii. 423 ; 
Greeley. \. \^A\ Johnston, 1S7 ; Benton, ii 591. (§431) Greeley, i. 
171, 185 ; Ridpath, 447; Bartlett, iii. 424 ; Benton, ii. 632.] 

(4) Polk's Administration : 1845-49. 

432. Inventions and Discoveries. — This period saw a great 
number of inventions and discoveries, all tending to make life 
and work easier and more profitable. Goodyear's process for 
vulcanizing, or hardening, india-rubber (1839) was now coming 
into use ; it has made it possible to use rubber for innumerable 
purposes. Elias Howe patented the sewing machine (1846), 
which has made household-life so much easier. Another 



1847] POLKS ADMINISTRATION. 173 

great step was the use of ether to produce unconsciousness 
during surgical operations, by Dr. Morton, of Boston (1846) ; 
it was now no longer necessary for the surgeon to tie his 
patient down, and perform the operation with agony to the 
victim. Hoe patented his cylinder printing press (1847); 
it, with its improvements, has made it possible to print the 
enormous number of copies issued by the newspapers of the 
present day. 

433. Newspapers. — The telegraph and the new printing- 
presses had a great influence on American newspapers, mak- 
ing it easier for them to gather and publish news (§ 385). 
One sign of the change was the formation of a press associa- 
tion in New York City (1849) ; its business was to gather 
news for all the newspapers belonging to it. There are now 
a number of such associations in the country. 

434. The Navy. — Steam-vessels were now being introduced 
into the navy, the Princeton being the first (1844) ; and the 
old sailing-vessels began to disappear. Hitherto naval officers 
had received their training on board ship ; now the Naval 
School was established at Annapolis (1845). 

435. The Smithsonian Institution. — James Smithson, an 
Englishman, left a legacy to the United States " for the dis- 
semination of knowledge among men ;" and the Government 
used it to found the Smithsonian Institution (1845). It has 
formed valuable museums, and printed and issued to the 
people many valuable books and papers on subjects which 
would command such a small sale that publishers would not 
undertake them. 

436. Department of the Interior. — Another sign of the 
growth of the country was the formation of the Department 
of the Interior (1849), to attend to such subjects as the 
Indians and public lands, which had now come to involve so 
much work that the other Departments could no longer attend 
to them (§ 266). 

437. The TariflF of 1846.— The election of 1844 had given 
the Democrats control of the Government. They re-estab- 
lished the Sub-Treasury System (§ 411), which has remained in 



174 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1847 

force ever since. They passed a revenue tariff (1846) to take 
the place of the partly Protective Tariff (S 421). This put an 
end to protection until 1861, when it was again begun (§564). 

438. New States. — Texas was made a State (1845), Iowa, 
the fourth State formed from the Louisiana purchase (§ 301), 
was admitted (1846). Wisconsin, the fiftli and last State 
formed from the old Northwest Territory (§ 246), was ad- 
mitted (1848). Texas was a slave State ; the other two were 
free States. 

439. The Oregon Country. — By a treaty with Great Britain 
(1846), the two countries agreed to divide the Oregon 
Country (§ 303) on the line of the present boundary. The 
United States thus gave up the former American claim to the 
whole Pacific coast as far north as Alaska ; and Great Britain 
gave up the English claim to all the coast south of the 
Columbia Eiver. A further disagreement as to the course of 
the boundary line after it reached the Pacific inlets was 
settled long afterward by treaty (1871 : § 649). 

[Supplementary Reading.— (^ 432) Eighty Years, i. 410; Jolinson, ii. 
1169 ; Eighty Years, ii. 261 ; Bishop, ii. 475 ; Johnson, if. 1014 ; Johnson 
1. 138; Johnson, iii. 1416. (^^ 433) Hudson, 595 ; Eighty Years, ii. 303. 
(§435) i?M/p«</;, 460; Jt)/^«.w«, iv. 3S9. O^i'-m Ridpath, WZ. (§437) 
Bartlett, iii. 429 ; Johnston, 145 ; Bishop, ii. 439. (§ 460) Barrow's Ore- 
gon, 212,263,282; Bartlett, iii. 427; Benton, ii. 624.660, &1Z; Rid- 
path, 458 ; Johnston, 144.] 

440. Origin of the Mexican War. — Between the rivers 
Nueces and Rio Grande was a strip of territory claimed by 
both Texas and Mexico. General Taylor, who commanded 
the troops of the United States in Texas after its annexation 
(§ 431), was ordered into this strip to take possession of it, 
and took post at Brownsville. One of his scouting parties 
was captured by a Mexican force which had crossed the Rio 
Grande ; and he sent this news at once to the President at 
Washington. 

441. War Declared. — President Polk sent the news at once 
to Congress ; and Congress passed an act (1846) declaring 
that war existed "by the act of the Republic of ]\Iexico." 
Other acts were passed approi)riating money for the war, and 



1847] MEXICAN WAR. 176 

authorizing the President to accept volunteers. All these 
acts were supported by the Democrats. The Whigs opposed 
the declaration, for they said that war had come by the act of 
President Polk, in ordering Taylor into the disputed terri- 
tory; but they voted for the appropriations for the war. 

442. Palo Alto and Resaca de la Paliua. — Just before the 
declaration of war, a Mexican army crossed the Rio Grande. 
Taylor's force was much smaller ; but lie beat the Mexicans 
at Palo Alto \_pah'-lo aJd'-to] and again the next morning at 
Resaca de la Palma [^t'dh-sahZ-kah da lali faliV -ma}i\, and drove 
them back across the Rio Grande He followed leisurely 
across the river, seized Matamoras, and tliere waited for rein- 
forcements. 

443. California and New Mexico. — During the summer 
(1846) California was seized by the fleet under Commodores 
Sloat and Stockton, aided by a land force under John C. 
Fremont, who had been exploring the Rocky Mountains. At 
the same time New Mexico was conquered by an overland 
expedition from Fort Leavenworth (now the city of Leaven- 
worth) under General S. W. Kearny. 

444. The New Territory.— All this territory, covering 
what are now the States of California and Nevada, the Terri- 
tories of Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, and parts of Colo- 
rado and Wyoming, was little more than a wilderness, having 
few inhabitants, and producing little but tallow and hides. 
No one knew or suspected that it contained a wealth of gold, 
silver, and other minerals ; but it was known to be fertile, 
and it had the finest liarbor on the coast, San Francisco. It 
was decided to hold all this territory at the end of the war, if 
possible, but to pay Mexico for it. All the following battles 
of the war were fought in Mexico, for the purpose of keeping 
the Mexicans away from this conquered territory, and forcino- 
them to agree to a peace. 

445. Taylor's Campaign.— In the autumn (1846), Taylor 
moved out from Matamoras, and captured a Mexican army 
twice as strong as his own in the fortified city of Monterey, 
after four days of hard fighting in the streets. Moving 



176 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1847 

slowly southward to Buena Vista, he was attacked by ii 
Mexican army four times as strong as his own, under Santa 
Anna, in the following winter (184:7). Taylor had placed his 
army at the upper end of a long and narrow pass in the 
mountains, with high cliffs on the one side and deep ravines 
on the other, so that his enemy could attack him only in 
front. All day long the Mexicans charged up the pass ; but 
their charges were beaten back, and at nightfall they hastily 
retreated. There was no further serious fighting in that 
quarter. Northeastern Mexico was thus left in the hands of 
the Americans, and Taylor soon afterward returned to the 
United States, where he was honored as the hero of the war, 
and was elected President the next year (§ 456). 

446. Scott's Plan.— Winfield Scott (§ 325) was now the 
oldest of the American generals ; and his plan was to attack 
Vera Cruz, and from that city to take the short road to the 
capital city of Mexico, while the other American armies 
merely held what they had gained. A fleet and army were 
given him for the execution of his plan, and with them he 
attacked and captured Vera Cruz, soon after the battle of 
Buena Vista. All the fighting by Scott's array, which ended 
the war, took place in 1847. 

447. The March to Mexico. — Scott began at once the march 
from the coast, which is unhealthy in summer, toward the 
higher ground of the interior. As he entered the passes of the 
mountains, he found a superior Mexican force, under Santa 
Anna, in a stro?ig position called Cerro Gordo [.st'/''-ro gar' -do'], 
and attacked it, gaining a complete victory and driving the Mex- 
icans in headlong retreat before him. There was little further 
resistance to the march until, in August, the little American 
army reached the edge of the mountains which encircle the 
valley of Mexico. Before them lay the valley, like a great 
bowl sunk into the mountains. In the middle of it was the 
city of Mexico, with 200,000 inhabitants, surrounded by 
strong walls and extensive lakes; and before reaching it, the 
Americans would have to capture many strongholds, and dis- 
perse a Mexican army of three times their number. 



1847] 



MEXICAN WAR. 



Ill 



448. Contreras and Churubusco. — So many forts had been 
built on the usual 
road that the 
Americans cut a 
new road around 
them for them- 
selves, and came 
into the valley at 
a point nearer the 
city. About ten 
miles from the 
city, the fighting 
began, and on the 
first day five vic- 
tories were won, 
the most impor- 
tant being the 
storming of the 
fortified camp of 
Contreras \kon- 
tr a' -rails'] and of 
the fortified 
heights of Churu- 
busco [choo-roo- 
boos'-ko]. Before 
night, almost the 
whole Mexican 
force had been 
driven within the 
walls of the city. 
Santa Anna then 
proposed to dis- 
cuss terms of 
peace, and Scott 
agreed, until he 
found that his en- o so loo Too 

emy was strength- War with Mexico. 

ening the defences of the city, when he renewed the war. 




SCALE OF MILES 



178 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1848 

44{). Moliiio del Rey and Chapultepec. — A sninll fortifica- 
tion csilkMl Molino di'l Wi^y \^iiio-I[''-nd (hi rd'\ was first capt- 
ured; and a week later, tlie Americans assaulted the princi- 
pal ^Mexican position outside of the city, a strong castle called 
Chapultepec [rh<(h-j/oo/'-ta-pei-], perched on the top of a very 
steep hill. The Americans had to climb the cliff, and then 
use scaling-ladders to get into the windows of the castle. 
The Mexicans resisted braveh', and even attempted to blow 
up the castle with every one in it; but the men who were to 
light the trains were shot down as the Americans swarmed in, 
and Chapultepec was captured. 

450. Capture of Mexico. — The whole American army at 
once moved around to a side of the city where no attack had 
been expected; and before night it had won two of the gates, 
and was inside of the city. During the night, Santa Anna 
fled from the city with the remainder of his army; and in the 
morning Scott's army, numbering but 6,000 men, marclied 
tlirough the main street, and raised the flag of the United 
States over the national palace. 

451. The Treaty of Peace. — It was not until nearly five 
months later (1848) that the Mexican government agreed to a 
treaty of peace, giving up the conquered territory north of the 
present northern boundary of Mexico, and receiving in return 
115,000,000 in money, and the payment of !!;3,000,000 of 
Mexican debts due to Americans. The Senate of the United 
States ratified the treaty; peace was restored; and the Ameri- 
can armies evacuated Mexico. 

452. Territorial Growth. — All the soil acquired from Mexi- 
co, including Texas, was nearly as large as the Louisiana pur- 
chase, and gave the United States the form and boundaries 
which are still retained, except for the addition of Alaska. 
The territorial growth of the United States falls into four 
great divisions: (1) Tlie United States, as left by the Revolu- 
tion, altogether east of the Mississippi with Florida added in 
1819 (§§ 23G, 355); (2) Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, 
with Oregon added in 1846 (§§ 301, 439); (3) Texas and the 
Mexican cessions (§§431, 451); (4) Alaska (§ G32). Of these, 



1848] POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 179 

the second was the largest, the third next, the first next, and 
the fonrtli smallest. 

The square miles in these additions were as follows: 

Square Miles. 

United States in 1783 827.844 

Louisiana. 1.S03 1,171,931 

Florida. 1819 59 :>68 

Texas. 1845 376.133 

Mexican Cession, 1848 545,783 

Gadsdnn Purcliase from Mexico, 1853 45,535 

Alaska, 1867 577,390 

[Supplementary Reading.— (g 440) Bartlett. iii. 428; Ridpath, 447; 
Greeley, i. 186; Gilman, 455; Von Holsl, iii. 8:5; Wilson, ii. 7. (§ 441) 
Barilett, iii. 428; Ridpalh, 450; Greeley, i. 187; Draper, i. 395; Benton, 
ii. 677; Gilman. 456; Von Hoist, iii. 232. 239; Johnston. 143; Wilson, ii. 
9; Livermore, 57, 163; Ramsay's The Other Side. (§ 442) Bartlett, iii. 
431; Ridpath. 449; Gilman, 457; Bryant and Gay, iv. 370; Wilson, ii. 
10; Livermore. 125. (i^ 443) Bartlett, iii. 436, 437; Ridpath, 452; 
Benton, ii. 683, 688, 716; Gilman, 458; Von Hoist, iii. 258; Bryant 
and (ray. iv. 372; Royoe's California, 151. (§ 444) Vo?i Hoist, 
iii. 268: ^Livermore, 187; Sherman, i. 43. (§ 445) Bartlett, iii. 434, 438; 
Ridpath, AT)!, 'irt'i; Gilman. m); Von Hoist, iii. 29\, 298, SS\; Bryant 
and Gay,iv. 371, 373; Livermore, 129. (^ 446) Bartlett. iii. ASS), 4-i2; 
Ridpath, 4:^)4 ; Scott, 415; Draper, i. 396; Gilman, 465; Von Hoist, iii. 
298, 331; Livermore. 133; Griffis's Perry, 197. (^ 447) Bartlett. iii. 443; 
Draper, i. 397; Von Hoist, iii. 332; Bryant and Gay, iv. 376; 5w«, 430. 
(>5 448) Bartlett, iii. 446; Ridpath, 456; Draper, i. 398; Bryant and 
Gay. iv. 377; <Sco«, 467. (i^449)5rtr«e«, iii. 448; Ridpath, 4^1; Bryant 
and Gay, iv. 380 ; Scott. 505. (§ 450) Bartlett. iii. 450 ; Bryant and 
Gay, iv. 384 ; Scott. 523. (§ 451) Bartlett, iii. 435 ; Ridpath, 458 ; 
Benton, ii. 709 ; Gilman, 466 ; Fo/i .Hb^s^, iii. 344 ; Johnston, 147 ; 
TF2.7SOW, ii. 25] 

453. Slavery in the Territories. — The Mexican cession 
l)rought up again the question of slavery in the Territories, 
wliich had heen settled in 1820 (§ 354). Tlie South demanded 
that slavery should be permitted in the new territory, since 
southern immigrants would not be willing to settle there un- 
less they were allowed to take their slaves witli tliem. The 
North demanded that slavery sliould be forbidden, since the 
new territory was already free by Mexican law, and any intro- 
duction of slavery would keep free-State immigrants from 
going thither. There was no middle ground: free labor and 
slave labor could not use the same territory. 

454. The Wilmot Proviso. — When it was first suggested to 



180 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1848 

buy the territory from Mexico, David AVilmot, a member of 
Congress from Peiiusylvania, introduced what was called from 
him the Wilmot Proviso. It appropriated mouey to buy the 
territory, provichd thcit slavery should not be permitted in it. 
It never became law, for tlie South proved to be strongly op- 
posed to it; and the new territory was acquired without it. 
Thus, when this administration ended, the United States 
owned a vast amount of new territory, without being able to 
decide whether slavery Avas to be allowed or forbidden in it. 

455. The Free-Soil Party.— The old parties, the Democrats 
and the Whigs, refused to support the Wilmot Proviso, for 
they had Southern members whom they were afraid of losing. 
The former Democrats and Whigs who supported the Proviso, 
together with the Liberty party (§ 430), were thus compelled 
to form a new party of their own, called the Free-soil party 
(1848). 

456. The Presidential Election of 1848.— The new party 
decided the next Presidential election. The Democratic 
candidates were Lewis Cass, of Michigan, for President, and 
William 0. Butler, of Kentucky, for Vice-President. The 
Whig candidates were General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, 
and Millard Fillmore, of New York. Neither of these parties 
said anything about slavery in the new territory. The Free- 
soilers, declaring that they meant to forbid slavery in the new 
territory, nominated ex-President Van Buren and Charles 
Francis Adams, of Massachusetts. TJie Free-soil vote in New 
York took so many votes from the Democrats as to give the 
electoral vote of that great State to tlie Whigs; and Taylor 
and Fillmore were elected. 

457. Gold in California. — California, lately conquei-ed from 
Mexico, proved to be a treasure-house. Gold was discovered 
on the Sacramento Kiver (1848) just before the treaty of peace 
with Mexico was agreed upon. While a saw-mill and mill-dam 
were being constructed, some shining particles were found in 
the sand. They proved to be gold; and it was soon found that 
the soil was rich in that metal. No such gold-mines had been 
Been in the world before, Other mines had produced a little 



1848] POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 181 

gold witli a great deal of labor: these gave a great deal of gold 
with little labor. The few Americans in California crowded 
to the '^ diggings;" and lucky finders worked for a few weeks 
or months, and then went home rich, or sp'efit their fortunes 
in San Francisco or New York. 

458. The Oold-Fever. — The news of the discovery was 
hardly believed at first in the older settled parts of the 
country; but when California gold was brought to the mint 
at Philadelphia, and was pronounced genuine, a great excite- 
ment broke out. Men flocked from all parts of the country 
to California; they went by steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, 
crossed it, and sailed up the coast to San Francisco; they 
bought sailing-vessels, and went around Cape Horn ; they 
travelled overland across the plains. The "gold-fever" was 
not confined to the United States, but spread to Europe. 
Within two years, there were 100,000 persons in California, 
and San Francisco was a i-apidly growing city. 

459. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this 
period were as follows: 

1841-45 : Harrisou's aud Tyler's terms § 420 

1841: Death of Harrison aud succession of Tyler 420 

The Whigs quarrel with Tyler 421 

Repeal of the Sub-Treasury Act. 421 

1843 : New tariff act passed 421 

Treaty with Great Britain 423 

The Dorr Rebellion , 429 

1844 : The first electric telegraph 426 

Copper discovered in Michigan 4^-7 

Anti-Rent troubles in New York 429 

1845 : Florida admitted to the Union 425 

Annexation of Texas 431 

1845-49 : Polk's term ; 432 

1845 : Texas admitted to the Union 438 

1846 : Iowa admitted to the Union 438 

Sewing-machine invented 432 

Smithsonian Institution founded 435 

Sub-Treasury system re-established 437 

New tariff act passed 437 

Treaty with Great Britain 439 

Battle of Palo Alto (May 8) 442 

Battle of Resaca de la Palma (May 9) 442 

War declared against Mexico (May 13) 441 

Conquest of California and New Mexico (summer) 443 

Battle of Monterey (September 24) 445 



182 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1849 

1847 : Battle of Buemi Vista (February 28) §445 

Capture of Vera Cruz (March 27) , 446 

Battle of Cerro Gordo (April 18) 447 

Battle of Coutreras (August 20) 448 

Battle of Cbapullepec (bepteuiber I'd) 449 

Capture of Mexico (September 14) 450 

1848 : Gold discovered iu California (Jauuary 19) 457 

Treaty of peace with jVIexico signed (February 2) 451 

Wiscousin admitted to the Uuiou . 438 

1849 : The "gold-fever." 458 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 458) A. H. Stephens, ii. 181 ; Calhoun, iv. 
498. (i^ 454) Von IIoU, iii. 285 ; Benton, ii. 694 ; Wilson, ii. 16 ; Draper, 
i. 400 ; Greeley, i. 189 ; Bartlett, iii. 429, 459 ; Bryant aiid Guy, 885. 
(^ 455) Von Hoist, iii. 897 ; Wilson, ii. 155 ; Benton, ii. 728 ; Wilson, ii. 
141. (§ 4")6) Von Hoist, iii. 365, 402 ; Benton, ii. 722 ; Wihon, ii. 128 ; 
Greeley, i. 191 ; Bartlett, iii. 457. (^ 457) Von Hoist, iii. 404; Draper, i. 
402; Bartlett. iii. 458; Sherman, i. 68; Eic/hiy Years, ii. 71; Bryant 
and Gay. 387. (ij 458) Von Hoist, iii. 407 ; Sherman, i. 74 ; Royce's Cali- 
fornia. 220, 285 ; Ba3'ard Taylor's El Dorado; Parkman's California, 
Hittel's History of San Francisco; Soule's Annals of San Francisco.^ 



i 



CHAPTER VI. 

SECTIONAL DIVISION: 1849-61. 

(1) Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations : 1849-53. 

460. Sectional Feeling. — The story of these twelve years is 
one of growing separation of feeling between the sections 
(§ 352). The sections were different, from the fact that slavery 
was dead in the North, while it was in full vigor in the South. 
The men who owned slaves in the South were not a large part 
of its population :* but they were the richest, ablest, and most 
influential men of their section, and Avere very apt to consider 
any attack upon slavery as an attack upon the South. The 
great increase of railroads and of other kinds of industry in 
which more than one State was interested had made the people 
of the North learn to think of the Union mainly as one coun- 
try, from which no State had a right to withdraw. In the 
South, where slavery prevented the development of any such 
kinds of industry, the notions of State Sovereignty and of the 
right of Secession (§ 399) were still sincerely held. All through 
these twelve years, those who owned slaves were becoming 
more and more angry at successive attacks upon slavery, and 
more and more anxious to induce their States to secede. Much 
as the people of the South loved the idea of State Sovereignty, 
they loved the Union more; and with the greatest difficulty 
they wer3 finally brought to agree to the attempt to secede. 
Thus this period runs into war between the sections; for it 
was found that the people of the North were willing to fight 
rather than permit the country to be broken to pieces. 

* Only about 200,000 persons out of nearly 10,000,000: or about one in every fifty. 

183 



184 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [1850 

461. Di£Qculties of 1850. — From the very beginning of 
Taylor's term of oflBce most of the country's difficulties were 
mixed up, in one way or other, with the matter of slavery. 
The people of California, being troubled with a gieat many 
lawless immigrants, and unwilling to wait for Congress to give 
them a Territorial government (§ 74G), formed a State consti- 
tution of their OAvn, and a})plied for admission ; but this con- 
stitution forbade slavery, and many Southern members were 
therefore determined to resist the admission of the new State. 
Texas claimed a part of New Mexico. The North complained 
of the selling of slaves in the national capital, and the South 
complained that the laws for the return of runaway slaves 
(§ 463) were not strong enough. Utah and New Mexico 
needed Territorial governments: but the North controlled one 
House of Congress and the South the other (§ 352), and the 
two could not agree as to whether slavery should be allowed 
or forbidden in them. 

462. The Compromise of 1850. — Clay was a great settler of 
difficulties of this kind (§§ 354, 40"2). He was in the Senate 
at this time ; and he proposed, and Congress, after long dis- 
putes, adopted what was known as the Compromise of 1850. 
There were five principal parts in it. (1) California was ad- 
mitted as a State, without slavery. (2) Texas was paid to give 
up her claims to New Mexico. (3) Territorial governments 
were formed for Utah and New Mexico, without either permit- 
ting or forbidding slavery. (4) Slavery was still permitted in 
the District of Columbia, but not the selling of slaves. (5) A 
new Fugitive-Slave Law was passed. 

463. The Fugitive-Slave Law. — Nothing did so much as 
this new Fugitive-Slave Law to increase the number of anti- 
slavery men in the North. It had been so difficult, hereto- 
fore, for an owner to get back a runaway slave that it had 
not often been tried. This law was so strong that owners 
could now recover their slaves from any part of the North ; 
and there were many cases of great cruelty Avhich were shock- 
ing to a people unused to slavery. The testimony of the per- 
son accused of being a runaway slave was not to be taken; 



1850] TAYLOR'S AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 185 

and some persons who had probably never been in the South 
at all were arrested and sent thither as runaway slaves. All 
these cases went far to convince many that the Abolitionists 
and Free-Soilers had not been so far wrong in saying that 
slavery was "a sin against God and a crime against man." 

464. Death of Taylor. — Just as the Compromise of 1850 
was being passed, Pi esident Taylor died, and Vice-President 
Fillmore became President instead of him. Taylor was a sim- 
ple and honest soldier, who was commonly called "Eough and 
Ready" by his men and by the people; and he was greatly re- 
gretted. But there was no such quarrel between Congress 
and Fillmore as in Tyler's case (§ 421). 

465. Results of the Compromise. — Most people were con- 
tent with the Compromise, except as to the Fugitive-Slave 
Law. But it was really an unfortunate settlement. It was a 
public recognition of the fact that there were now two sec- 
tions in the United States, instead of one nation; and from 
this time it was more and more difficult to make laws which 
were satisfactory to both sections. 

466. Change of Parties.^ — Until this time, there had been 
Northern and Southern Democrats, and Northern and South- 
ern Whigs. Many of the Northern Whigs were not inclined 
to support slavery; and therefore many of the Southern 
Whigs began to leave their former party, and vote and act 
with the Democrats. The results were that the Southern 
portion of the Democratic party was steadily growing stronger, 
while the Whig party went to pieces after the next Presiden- 
tial election, leaving for about two years only one great party, 
the Democratic party. All this meant that even the parties 
were becoming sectional. 

467. The Census of 1850.— The population of the United 
States had now (1850) grown to 23,000,000, an increase of 
6,000,000 since 1840 (§ 413). Railroads, steamers, banks, 
manufactures, and commerce were increasing as rapidly as 
the population. Prosperity was general; but the only new 
feature of it was the discovery of gold in California. 

468. Presidential Election of 1852.— At the next Presi- 



186 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [1853 

dential election (1852) the Demociatic candidates for Piesi- 
dent and Vice-President Avere Franklin Pierce, of New 
Hampshire, and William P. King, of Alabama; the Whig 
candidates were General Wiiifield Scott, of Virginia, and 
William A. Graham, of North Carolina; and the Free-Soil 
candidates were John P. Hale, of Xew Hampsliire, and 
George W. Julian, of Indiana. The Free-Soil vote was smaller 
than before; many of the Northern Whigs refused to vote 
because their convention had approved the Fugitive-Slave 
Law, while Southern Whigs voted with the Democrats; the 
Whigs thus lost votes on both side?,* and Pierce and King 
were elected, carrying all but four States. 

[Supplementary Reading.— (^ 461) Von HoUt, iii. 462. 479 ; Bartlett, 
iii. 474 : Ridputh, 464 ; Sherman, i 106 ; A.H. Slep/iens, ii. Iit9. (^ 462) 
Von Hoist, iii. 52") ; Benton, ii. 742, 769 ; Bartlett iii. 476 ; Dni}ier, i. 
405 ; Oreeley. i. 203 ; Wilson, ii. 231, 259. 291 ; Bryant and Gry, iv. 887 ; 
Lodge's Webster, 301. (g 463) Von Hoist, iii. 548 : Bartlett, iii. 480 ; 
Draper, i. 405 ; Greeley, i. 210 ; Benton, ii. 773 ; Wilson, ii. 304. 323 ; 
Bryant and Gay, iv. 3!)7 ; May's Recollections, :!45 ; Still's Underground 
Railroad, 343 ; Clarke's Anti-Slavery Days, chap. iii. (v:^ 464) Von Hoist, 
iii. 541; Bartlett, iii. 478; Bryant and Gay, iv. 394 (§466) A II. 
Stephens, ii. 234 ; Johnston, 15i. (^ 467) Bartlett, iii. 481. (§ 468) Rid- 
path, 469 ; Von Hoist, v. 133 ; Greeley, i. 222 ; Wilson, ii. 360 ; A. H. 
Stephens, ii. 239 ; Johnston, 156.] 



(2) Piekce's Admixistratiox : 1853-57. 

469. Growth of the CoHiitry. — Increase of population is a 
good thing in itself. The more articles of one kind that a 
man makes, the cheaper he can make all of them, and the 
smaller the price at which he can sell each of them. As pop- 
ulation increases the number of buyers, each gets what he 
needs at a lower price, and is the richer for the difference. 
The country was now beginning to feel the effects of increase 
of population. There was more money to build railroads and 
telegraphs; tlie ordinary roads and bridges were far better 
than they had been before the railroad cauie in (§ 2G1); and 
banks, commerce, and manufactures were spreading more 

* It was coniinonly said that ihe Whijj party liad died of au attempt to swallow 
the Fiigiiive-Slave Law. 



1853] PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 187 

widely. There was one panic (§ 408) in 1857; but the coun- 
try recovered from it rapidly and easily. 

470. Exhibitions. — A "■ World's Fair' had been held at 
London (1851), the first of the great exhibitions of arts and 
manufactures which have since become so common. Ameri- 
can inventions had taken a high place in it; agricultural ma- 
chinery had been its most striking feature (§ 377). A similar 
exhibition was opened at the '*' Crystal Palace," a large struc- 
ture of glass and iron, on Eeservoir Square,* in New York 
City (1853). 

471. Foreign Affairs. — The growing power of the American 
Government had now enabled it to deal still more promptly 
and boldly with foreign nations and with its own people. 
Other nations had not been inclined to admit the American 
claim that a person might change his country, become natu- 
ralized in another country, and cease to owe obedience to the 
country in which he was born (§ 308). Now the American 
Government began to protect its naturalized subjects even 
when they were out of the United States. During rebellions 
in other countries, it compelled its own people to remain 
neutral, while it refused to interfere with their right to ex- 
press their sympathy with the rebels. 

472. Cuba. — The American Government offered to buy the 
island of Cuba from Spain, but Spain refused to sell it. Then 
secret expeditions from the United States were set on foot 
by 23rivate individuals, intended to conquer Cuba, and then 
obtain its admission to the Union as a slave State. Such ex- 
peditions are against the laws of the United States; but the 
American Government had much difficulty in stopping them.f 

473. Japan — Hitherto, Japan had refused to have any 
dealings with foreign nations. Commodore M. C. Perry, with 
an American fleet, pushed his way into Japan, and induced 
its government to agree to a commercial treaty (1854). The 



* Now Bryant Park. 

t They were commonly known as " filibustering" expeditious, from a former 
name of West Indian pirates. 



188 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [1854 

people of Japan have siuce become more and more like the 
European races. 

474. The Influence of Slavery — Slavery had now split the 
great religious denominations, except the Episcopalians and 
Catholics, into Northern and Southern churches. It had 
split the Whig party (§ 4GG), most of the churches, and 
almost everything else that it could reach; it had even split 
the country into two sections, which were every year becoming 
more opposed to one another, against the real wishes of their 
people. Every one could see signs of danger to the country, 
though no one could see just what it was to be. And the men 
on whom the country had been accustomed to rely were no 
longer its leaders; in the last four years. Clay, Webster, Cal- 
houn, Polk, and Taylor had died, and a number of less promi- 
nent leaders had also died or left public life. 

475. The American Party — Troubles in Europe had 
greatly increased tlie immigration into the United States, and 
many of the immigrants were very ignorant men. A new 
party, the American Party, now came into existence, aiming 
to prevent foreign-born citizens from holding office, and from 
voting, except after a very long residence.* It came to an 
end soon after the next Presidential election. 

476. The Kansas-Nebraska Act — Settlements were spread- 
ing to Kansas and Nebraska, and it became necessary to form 
Territorial governments for them. But Stephen A. Douglas, 
of Illinois, and other new Democratic leaders, thought that 
Congress was bound to act in the case of Kansas and Nebraska 
as it had done in the case of Utah and New Mexico (§ 462), 
that is, say nothing about slavery, but leave the people of the 
Territories to decide the matter. In this form the Kansas- 
Nehra^ha Act was passed by the votes of Northern and South- 
ern Democrats and Southern Whigs (1854). It proved to be 
the coming source of danger, and there was thereafter no 
more peace on the subject of slavery. Kansas and Nebraska 
were part of the territory in which Congress had forever for- 

* It was often called the " Know-Notliint? " party, because its members kept its 
proceedings secret. 



1855] PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 189 

bidden slavery by the Missouri Compromise of 1820 (§ 354), 
and the North felt that it had been deprived of that which 
had been promised to it in return for the admission of Mis- 
souri. 

477. The Republican Party. — There was more excitement 
and anger in the North than had been caused by any pre- 
vious action of Congress. Every one who was opposed to 
the extension of slavery, whether he had been called a Demo- 
crat, a Whig, a Free-Soiler, or an American, took the first 
opportunity to vote for candidates for Congress opposed to 
the Kansas-Nebraska Act; and they secured a majority in the 
next House of Representatives. Before the new Congress 
met, they had taken tlie name of the Republican Party, which 
is still retained. The new party, however, was confined to 
the Northern States. 

478. Feeling in tlie South. — The people of the South were 
so accustomed to slavery that they could see no reason for 
this excitement in the North; and they concluded that it had 
been contrived by new men, who wanted only to get into 
power. They felt that the South was attacked without rea- 
son ; and Southerners of all parties now began to unite against 
the North as against a common enemy. 

479. The Territory of Kansas.— "Leaving the question of 
slavery to the people of Kansas " proved to be a farce. 
When the first election-day came, parties of men from Mis- 
souri moved into Kansas, voted, and elected a Territorial 
Legislature which made Kansas a slave Territory. The laws 
of the new Territory made slavery lawful, and so arranged 
matters that it would be very difficult for any future Legisla- 
ture to forbid slavery. 

480. The Strng-gle for Kansas. — It was the very worst of 
signs that now, for the first time, there came an open struggle 
between the two sections for Kansas. Settlers crowded into 
it from the free States and the slave States, The Free-State 
settlers would not obey the laws of the Territory, which they 
considered to be a fraud, but formed a State government of 
their own, and applied to Congress for admission to the 



190 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [1856 

Union. The Sluve-Stnte settlers would not obey tlie State 
goveiMunent, whicli they considered to be nnhiwful. Each 
side attempted to put its laws into execution, and was resisted 
by force; and the struggle soon became an open war. Men 
were shot; parties of immigi-ants were robbed and dispersed; 
and towns were jjlundered and burned. Small armies, with 
cannon, were formed on both sides; and the newspapers all 
over the country were filled with exciting news from Kansas. 
President Pierce sent out one governor after another; but 
none of them could do anything to keep order until the Free- 
State settlers became so numerous tiiat their opponents gave 
up the struggle, after it had lasted about five years. 

481. Debates iu Congress — The Republicans usually con- 
trolled the House of Representatives, and would allow no law 
to be passed in favor of slavery. The Democrats controlled 
the Senate, and would allow no hnv to be passed against 
slavery. Thus many laws failed to pass, for want of agree- 
ment between the two houses. Long after the Kansas strug- 
gle was over, the Senate refused to admit Kansas as a State, 
because its Constitution forbade slavery. Debates became 
angrier; duels were threatened; many members regularly 
carried pistols or knives, expecting to be attacked by some of 
their opponents; and one Republican, Senator Sumner, of 
Massachusetts, was cruelly beaten by a South Carolina Repre- 
sentative, and remained ill for yeai's. 

482. Presidential Election of 185(J.— When the next Presi- 
dential election came on, the Democrats nominated for Presi- 
dent and Vice-President James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, 
and John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky; the Republicans 
Jolin C. Fremont, of California, and William L. Dayton, of 
New Jersey; and the American party ex-President P'ilhnore 
and Andrew J. Donelson, of Tennessee. The result of the 
election was a stronger sign of danger than even the Kansas 
struggle; for the first time, the two sections were now arrayed 
against one another in a Presidential election. The Demo- 
crats carried all the slave States (except Maryland, which 
yoted for the American candidates) and five of the free 



1856] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 191 

States, and elected their candidates; but the Eepublioans 
carried the remaining eleven free States. There was a strong 
party of secessionists in the South; and they spent tlie next 
four years in trying to prepare the South for secession in 
1860, if the Republicans should then succeed in carrying all 
the free States, wliich result would elect their candidates. 

483. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this 
period were as follows: 

1849-53: Taylor's and Fillmoi-e's term § 460 

1850: Death of Taylor, aud succession of Fillmore 4i)4 

Com|)romise of 1850 463 

Admission of California ... 463 

Fugitivf-Slave Law passed 463 

1853-57: Pierce's term 469 

1853: Ciystal Palace Exhibition 470 

1854: Tiie Japan Treaty 473 

The Kansas-Nebraska act passed 476 

1855: Rise of the liepublicau Party 4T7 

Tbe struggle in Kansas begins 480 

1856: Assault on Sumner 481 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 470) Eidpath, 470; Bartlett, iii. 503. 
(§471) Ridpath, 471; Bartlett, iii. 503; Von Hoist, iv. 71. (f? 473) Rid- 
path, 473; Greeley, i. 369; Bartlett, iii. 493; Curtis's Buchanan, ii. 136; 
Von HoM. iv. 45, 353; v. 15, 468. (^473) Ridpath, 470; Bartlett, iii. 
507; Gritlis's Perry. (§ 475) Wil^'on, ii. 419; Bartlett, iii. 510; Johnston, 
160; Byrant and Gay, iv. 416; Von Hoist, v. 79, 109, 189, 356. (§476) 
Wilson, ii. 343; Greeley, i. 335; Gilman, 478; Byrant and Gay, iv. 406; 
Ridpath, 473; Johnston, 159; A. H StepJiens, ii. 343; Davis, i. 86; Lost 
Came, 64; Von Hoist, iv. 383, 350; Botts, 135. (§ 477^ Wilson, ii. 406; 
Von Hoist, v. 331, 376; Johnston, 163. {% 4~,S) A. H Stephens, ii. 353; 
Davis, \. 33; Lost Cause, 65; Draper, i. 438. (§ 479) Wilson, ii. 466; 
Greeley, i. 335; Draper, i. 409; Byrant and Gay. iv. 410; Bartlett, iii. 
514; Von Hoist, v. 74. (§ 480) Holloway's Kansas; Spring's Kansas; 
Gladstone's Englishman in Kansas; Curlis's Buchanan, i. 197; Bu- 
chanan, 38; Ridpath, 473; Bartlett. iii. 515; Johnston, 163; Gilman, 
481; A. H Stephens, ii. 358; Davis, i. 39; Botts, 163; Wilson, ii. 463, 
496, 5::34. 557; Greelei/, i. 336, 349; Draper, i. 415; Von Hoist, iv. 407; 
v. 138, 333, 379, 384, 376. (§ 481) Wilson, ii. 47S; Von Hoist, v. 313; 
Johnston, 165; Sumner's Works, iv. 135, 400; Johnston's American 
Orations. (§ 483) Ridpath, 473; Bartlett, iii. 530; Wilson, ii. 508; Gil- 
man, 483; Greeley, i. 346; Johnston, 166; Von Hoist, v. 334, 436.] 



(3) Buchanan's Administkation: 1857-61. 

484. The Mormons. — Some thirty years before this, a man 
named Joseph Smith, in western New York, persuaded ^ 



192 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [1858 

number of others that a new Bible, called the Book of Mor- 
mon, had been revealed to him. They followed him to Illi- 
nois, where he founded a Mormon settlement, and began to 
teach that a good Mormon might have as many wives as he 
chose to have. He was finally killed by a mob. and his fol- 
lowers removed to Utah, where they have increased greatly in 
number. Utah was a Territory, under the government of 
Congress (§ 746); but the Mormons were very troublesome, 
and disobeyed the laws made for them by Congress. When 
the new President, Buchanan, sent a governor to Utah, he 
sent a body of troops to enforce obedience. The Mormons 
submitted unwillingly to the coming of the troops, and have 
never ceased to give trouble, partly because of their illegal 
marriages, and partly because they obey their priesthood 
rather than the laws. 

485. New States. — Minnesota, formed from the Louisiana 
Purchase (§ 301), Avas admitted as a State (1858). Part of 
the former Oregon Country (§ 302) was admitted as a State 
under the name of Oregon (1859). Kansas, after repeated 
applications and refusals, was admitted as a State, just at the 
end of this Administration (1861), when Southern Senators 
had begun to withdraw (§ 504). 

486. The Census of I860. — The population of the United 
States, by the census of 1860, was over 31,000,000, an increase 
of over 8,000,000 in ten years (§ 467). The increase of popu- 
lation had been about one third every ten years; but the leaps 
of increase had now become startling as the population grew 
larger. The increase in these ten years alone was more than 
the whole population of Great Britain a century before. In- 
deed, it was at this point that the population of the United 
States, which had been nothing 260 years before (^ 18), passed 
that of Great Britain. In thirty years, the whole face of the 
AVest had been changed.' In 1830, the maps of the United 
States had no such cities as Chicago, Milwaukee, or San 
Francisco, and no such States as Arkansas, Micliigan, Florida, 
Texas, Iowa, Wisconsin, California, Minnesota, Oregon, or 



1860] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 193 

Kansas: all these were the fruit of thirty years' work, aided 
by the railroad. 

487. Mineral Resources — It had now been found that coal 
was not confined to two or three States; that there were great 
beds of it in most of the new States; and that this continent 
contained probably as much coal as all the rest of the world 
together. This is a great source of wealth for the future, 
since so mucli work is done nowadays by machinery, which 
needs coal to run it. Gold was not confined to California: 
it was found at Pike's Peak, in Colorado (1858); and it has 
since been found in many other parts of the Eocky Moun- 
tains, from Idaho to New Mexico. In the same year was 
found a metal new to the United States: the Comstock lode 
of silver was discovered at Virginia City, in Kevada; and 
other mines were soon brought to light. Since then, it has 
)>een found that this Rocky Mountain region is rich in almost 
every kind of mineral. Wells sunk near Titusville, in north- 
western Pennsylvania (1859), struck a vast underground sup- 
ply of petroleum; and this at once became a new and large 
source of wealth. It seemed as if nature was generously 
pouring wealth into the lap of this fortunate people. 

488. Patents — Now that the country had grown so popu- 
lous, a patent on a useful invention was a source of great 
wealth, for there were many more buyers of patented articles. 
Thus the attention of the people was turned strongly to in- 
vention; the inventions made it easier to produce wealth; 
and the new wealth urged on further invention. 

489. Literature. — The writers who had appeared thirty 
years before (§ 386) had come to their full powers, and an in- 
creasing number of new men, such as the historian Motley, 
the poet Lowell, and the essayist Emerson, were at work with 
them. Newspapers and magazines had become very numer- 
ous, and employed many of the country's ablest men. 

490. Education — The public schools (§ 384) had become a 
great feature of the republic, and in them an army of pupils 
were studying at the State's expense. In addition to these. 



194 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [!«(<; 

there was a great number of private schools, and nearly 400 
colleges." 

491. Condition of the Country. — The life of the people w:is 
very different from what it had been fifty years before. 'J'lu' 
farms were cultivated more easily and jDrofitably by improved 
machinery worked by horses or by steam. New fertilizers, 
such as guano, were making old farms produce more. Log- 
cabins and shanties were disappearing, and were replaced by 
comfortable houses, containing conveniences which the rich- 
est of men could not have bought fifty years before: gas, liot- 
air furnaces, sewing-machines, and inventions of every sort 
to save labor or trouble, Tiiere were now few villages in th<' 
older part of the country that were not within reach of a rail- 
road or telegraph, by which their people could go or send 
easily and quickly to any part of the United States. 

402. The Cities — Not only tlie population, luit the com- 
fort, of the cities had increased. The dwellings had grown 
larger, the stores richer, and the streets finer; and the cities 
themselves had taken much the appearance which they still 
have, though they have since increased in size, and the inven- 
tion of elevators has caused the erection of very much loftier 
buildings than were possible in 1860. Great water-works 
brought pure water from a distance, and distributed it 
through the cities. Spacious parks were opened, as breath- 
ing-places for the cities. New York City had just opened 
the finest of these. Central Park, and other cities were at work 
in the same direction. Public libraries, such as the Astor 
Library in New York City, were appearing. Thirty years be- 
fore, the '^ watchmen" had walked the streets at night with 
canes and lanterns, and there wei-e hardly any arrangements 
to punish them for going to sleep or neglecting their duties. 
Now the new police system had been introduced, with officers 
to manage it and punish neglect or carelessness in the men.* 

4;):{. Condition of the South. — The prosperity shown by 
the census of 18G0 was a pleasing picture; but the South did 

* This city police system is an Enslish idea, introduced in London in 1829 by Sir 
Robert Peel: and for this reason the policemen were at first often called " peelers.'" 



I 



1860] BUCHANANS ADMINISTRATION. 195 

not shure in it. It paid no wages for its labor,, and its crops 
sold for large amounts; yet the money did not build up 
manufactures, colleges, schools, libraries, I'ailroads, or other 
signs of growth, as in the North: it went to the North or 
abroad to buy things which could not be made at the South. 
The secret of the backwardness of the South was in its slave 
system. Slaves worked only because they were made to work; 
they worked slowly, carelessly, and stupidly, and were fit for 
nothing better than to hoe cotton. In factories or on rail- 
roads they were of little use. The rich whites did not need 
to work; and the poor whites did not wish to work, because 
they had grown up in the belief that work was a sign of 
slavery. Tlius the South had no great number of persons 
who really wanted to work, and everytliing stood still; while 
in the North there was a general race for work, and every- 
thing was in active motion. 

49-i-. The Territories — The South, however, could not see 
this in 1860. It could only see that five Territories had 
become free States since the last slave State, Texas, had been 
admitted; and that it had been beaten in the struggle for 
another, Kansas; and it came to believe that this struggle 
against slavery in the Territories was really intended to make 
the South still weaker, and the North still stronger. 

495. The Dred Scott Case — Congress had forbidden slavery 
in the Louisiana purchase, outside of Missouri (§ 354), One 
Dred Scott, a Missouri slave who had been taken by his owner 
into the territory in which Congress had forbidden slavery, 
brought suit to be declared free, and the ease came before the 
Supreme Court (§ 744). The Court's decision (1857) sustained 
the Southern view of slavery in the Territories; it held that a 
slave-owner had as much right to take his slaves as his cattle 
from one State to anothe]-, or to the Territories, and that 
Congress had no right to forbid slavery in any of the Territo- 
ries. It held .that the Constitution considered slaves to be 
property, not persons; from which it would follow that Con- 
gress being bound to protect property in the Territories was 
bound to protect slavery there. 



196 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [1860 

496. Effects of the Decision — 'JMie decisions of the Su- 
preme Court have usuulh^ been accepted as settling such dis- 
puted questions; but the effect of this decision was only to 
make the Soutli more certain that it was right, and to make 
the Xorth exceedingly angry with the Supreme Court itself, 
so that any peaceable settlement became still more difficult. 
The people of the North continued to insist that negro slaves 
were considered by the Constitution as "peisons held to 
labor" by State law, and that tliey ceased to be slaves when 
taken out of their State, for the State law alone had made 
them property. 

497. Joim Brown's Raid. — Sectional feeling was made 
stronger still by an attempt of John Brown to excite a slave 
insurrection in Virginia (1859). He liad been one of the 
Free-State leaders in the Kansas troubles, and had grown into 
a religious fury against slavery. He seized Harper's Ferry, 
which contained the United States arsenal, intending to carry 
the arms off to the mountains near by, and use them to arm 
the slaves. The telegraph carried the news through the 
South, and a wild excitement followed for a few days. 
Brown's party was soon captured or shot; and Brown him- 
self, with the survivors, was hanged by the Virginia author- 
ities. But the South liad been too much startled to be easily 
quieted ; and there was a strong feeling of anger because the 
"raid" had been planned m tlie North. 

498. The Democratic Party. — When the Democrats lield 
their next national convention (1860), it was found that 
slavery hud at last split their party also (§ 474). Southern 
Democrats claimed that the party should accept the Supreme 
Court's opinion that Congress must protect slavery in the 
Territories. Northern Democrats, under Douglas, knew 
that they could win no moi'e elections in the North if tliey 
yielded to this demand, and tiiey refused ; so the conven- 
tion broke into two parts, which made different nominations. 

499. Parlies in ISOO. — As the Presidential election of 
1860 drew near, tliere were four parties at work, as follows: 

(fl) The Republican Party nominated Abraham Lincoln, 



1860] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. li^7 

of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for President 
and Vice-President. Their '' platform," or declaration of 
principles, declared that it was the right and duty of Con- 
gress io forbid slavery in the Territories. 

{h) The Southern Deiiwcrat,s nominated John C. Breckin- 
ridge, of Kentuck}^, and Joseph Lane, of Oregon. Their 
platform ileclared that it was the right and duty of Congress 
to pro/ect slavery in the Territories, whenever a slave-owner 
took his slaves thither. 

(c) The Nortliern Democrats nominated Stephen A.Doug- 
las, of Illinois, and Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia. Their 
platform declared that they still believed that the people of 
each Territory ought to control the matter of slavery in that 
Territory; but that they were willing to submit to the decision 
of the Supreme Court, whatever it might really mean. 

{(l) The American Party nominated John Bell, of Ten- 
nessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. Their plat- 
form declared that they wished only for "the Constitution, 
the Union, and the enforcement of the laws." This was not 
intended to mean much, except that its Southern supporters 
did not wish to go to war in defence of slavery in the Ter- 
ritories, and wanted the slavery question dropped out of poli- 
tics. 

500. Presidential Election of 1860 — The division in the 
Democratic party made the success of the Republicans cer- 
tain. Lincoln and Hamlin received the electoral votes of 
all the free States except three votes in New Jersey, and were 
elected,* 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 484) Ridpatli, 475; Bryant and Gay, iv. 
427; Ferris's Mormons; Guuuison's Mormons; Tucker's Mormonism. 
(§ 485) Barrow's Oregon; Hollowav's Kansas; Spi'iu^'s Kcuisas. (% 486) 
Johnson, i. 993, ii. 596, iii 784, '1185; Eighty Years, ii. 70, 116, 133, 
164, 204: Browne's Resources of the Pacific, (ij 488) Johnson, iii. 1113. 
(i; 489) Richardson, i. (see Index under" names mentioned). (§ 490) 
Draper, i. 491; Eigliiy Years, ii. 355; Liddel and Schem's (Jyelopxdia. 
(g 491) Eighty Years, i. 30. 35, 100, 175, 209; ii. 247, 423. (§ 493) Von 
Hoist, iii. 563: Olmstead, i. 19, 81, 112, 122, 188; Draper, i. 465. 487; 

* The electoral votes were 180 for Lincoln and Hamlin, 72 for Breckinridge and 
Lane, 39 for Bell and Everett, and 12 for Douglas and Johnson. 



198 ISErriONAL DiviaiON. [1861 

Theodore Parker's WorkH, v. 44, vi. 35; Cent. Mag., March, 1887. 
(^ 494) Ca^A<?ww, iv. 547; A. H. Stephens, ii 255. (M95) Wilson, ii. 
523; Bryant and Gay, iv. 424; Oreeley, i. 251; Lost Cause, 66; Bu- 
chanan, 49; Oilman, 485; Johnston, 170. (§ 496) ^. //. Stephens, ii. 
260; Buc7iana?i, 55; Greeley, i. 306; Johnston, 172. (§ 497) Wilson, ii. 
587; Greeley, i. 279; Lost Cause, 70; Buchanan, 62; (rj^wrtw. 486; G^zV- 
^<!<, 240; Johnston, 177; Bryant and Gay, iv. 429; 6'e/i<. jYa^. , Juh- 
1883, June, 1885. (§498) ira.so/i, ii. 673; Greeley, i. 309; yl. //. 5^/- 
f««, ii. 271; l/osi Cause, 76: Buchanan, 51, 66; Gillet, 252; Johnston 
179. (§ 499) Ridpath, 479; Draper, i. 496; TFi7«o/i, 689; Zos< CViwse, 78: 
Gilrnan, 491; Cg«<. ifa^. . October, 1882. (§ 500) G'r-ee^ey, i. 323, 328; 
Draper, i. 505; Davis, i. 49; Johnston, 182.] 

501. Secession. — South Carolina seems to have been the 
only Southern State whose people were really anxious to escape 
from the Union. As soon as Lincoln's election was made 
certain, this State called a State convention, which passed an 
"ordinance of secession'' (December 20, 1860). It declared 
that the Union between Soutli Carolina and other States, 
under the name of the United States of America, was at an 
end; and that South Carolina was now independent. The 
State was also made ready for war. This action was imitated, 
during the next two months, by the six States lying along the 
Gulf of Mexico — (leorgia, Florida. x\labama, Mississippi, Lou- 
isiana, and Texas. 

502. State Sovereignty and Sl.avery. — How did it happen 
that the six States last named seceded, if their people did not 
wish to do so ? Because of the influence of State Sovereignty 
and slavery together. It followed from the idea of State 
Sovereignty (§ 399) that when the voters of a State elected a 
State convention, that convention represented the State, and 
could do as it pleased, without needing to submit its action to 
a vote of the people. The richer and more influential men 
were very apt to be elected to the convention. But these 
were mainly slave-owners, and most of these were secessionists : 
so that the election of a S,tate convention simply handed the 
State over to the secessionists. The voter considered himself 
bound to '• follow his State," no matter what the State con- 
vention might do. 

503. The Confederate States. — After adopting ordinances 
of secession, and without asking any further permission from 



1861] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 199 

the voters, the State conventions sent delegates to Mont- 
gomery, in Alabama, and the delegates there formed a new 
government under the name of the Confederate States of 
America. They elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, 
President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice- 
President; adopted a constitution and flag, both much like 
those of the United States; and took steps to form an army 
and navy. Thus the voters of at least six States, without 
their having a word to say about the matter, were made sub- 
jects of an illegal government; and they were thus fraud- 
ulently bound to defend it, though it could only exist by war- 
ring on the United States, 

504. Affairs in the South. — Even before the different 
States seceded, the forts, arsenals, dock-yards, ships, custom- 
houses, mints, and other property of the United States were 
seized by the State governments; and the few United States 
soldiers were surrounded and forced to surrender. Within 
sixty days, the authority of the United States was paralyzed 
in seven States of the Union. As soon as a State seceded, its 
citizens who were in Congress or in the service of the United 
States resigned, and entered the service of their own States 
or of the Confederacy. 

505. Fort Sumter. — The only forts saved in the South 
were the forts near Key West, Fort Pickens at Pensacola, and 
Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. The South Carolina 
authorities began to build forts and batteries to attack Fort 
Sumter; and when a steamer, the Star of the West, was sent 
to carry supplies to it, they fired on her and drove her back. 
This state of affairs continued through the first three months 
of 1861: Major Anderson, commanding Fort Sumter, was not 
allowed by his government to fire on the forts around him; 
and they did not allow supplies to be brought to him by sea. 

506. The Federal (xovernment. — All this time, nothing was 
done by the Federal Government to prepare for the coming 
struggle. Congress spent its time in talking about new pro- 
posals for compromise. The President was anxious to du 
nothing except to keep the peace until the end of his term. 



200 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [1861 

There was no certainty that the people of the North and 
West would fight rather than permit the Hontliern States to 
break away peaceal)ly from the Union; and foreign govern- 
ments believed that the great republic was at last broken to 
pieces. Affairs were in this dismal condition when Bu- 
chanan's term ended and Lincoln was inaugurated (March 4, 
I8G1). 

507. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this 
period were as follows: 

1857-61: Bucbauau's term § 484 

1857: Died Scott decision ^ 495 

Panic of 1857 469 

Morinou troubles 484 

1858: Minnesota admitted 485 

Gold discovered in Colorado 487 

Silver discovered in Nevada ' ... 487 

1859: Oregon admitted 485 

Petroleum discovered in Pennsylvania 487 

John Brown's " raid " 497 

1860: Lincoln elected President 500 

South Carolina secedes (December 20) 501 

1861: Six other States secede 501 

Steamer Star of the West tired on (January 9) 505 

The Confederate States formed (February 4) 508 

Kansas admitted 485 

[Supplementary Reading. — (ij 501) Draper, i. 510, 517; Eidpath, 480; 
iVilson, iii. 5; (1 reeky, i. 338; Oilman, 493; Campaiqns, i. 3; McPherson, 2; 
Prenton, 304; JohnKton, 182; Lost Cause, 82, 86; Pollard's Davis. 45; 
Davis, i. 57. (§502)^1. //. Stephens, ii. 280, 297, 307, 315, 321; Pol- 
hull's Davis, 44, 93; Campaigns, i. 12. (§ 503) Draper, i. 528; liidpath, 
4H1; Wil.wn. iii. 117; Greeley, i. 407; Campaigns, i. 39; McPherson. 98, 
400; Record, i. 17: Pollard's Z>«m, 87; A.'ll. Stephens, W. Z\2, 324, 
714; Davis, i. 229. (§ 504) Draper, i. 558; Lost Came, 87; Scott, 613; 
McPherson. 27. (§ 505) Draper, i. 542, 559; Campaigns. \. 20; Bu- 
chanan, 163, 190: Scott, 621; McPherson, 32; Lost Cmise, 97: Drap&r, i. 
519, 554; liidpath, 481; Wilson, iii. 33, 61, 85: Buchanan, 153; Curtis's 
Buchanan, ii. 187; McPherson, 48; Johnston, 183; Lost Canse. 92.] 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE CIVIL WAR: 1861-65. 

LiNcoLx's Administration. 
I. Events of 1861. 

508. The New President. — Abraham Lincoln, now a man 
of 52, was a Kentucky boy, born of poor parents, with whom 
he emigrated to Illinois. As he grew up, he found work as a 
farm-hand, rail-splitter, and boatman. By hard work he 
educated himself, and became a successful lawyer and a polit- 
ical leader in his State, where he was commonly known as 
" Honest Abe Lincoln." He was still little known outside of 
Illinois; and when he was elected President there was a 
very wide belief in the North that the " rail-splitter " was a 
reckless and dangerous man. In tiie South, it was even 
believed that he was a mulatto (and Hamlin a full-blooded 
negro), elected as an insult to the South. It was not until 
his death that people began to see that he was one of the 
wisest, greatest, and most kind-hearted men of history, who 
loved one section as well as he did the other, and his whole 
country more than either. 

509. Fort Sumter. — Peace was broken a little more than a 
month after Lincoln's inauguration. It became necessary to 
send supplies from the North to Fort Sumter; and the at- 
tempt thus to relieve the fort brought on an attack by the 
South Carolina batteries. After a bombardment of thirty hours, 
Major Anderson surrendered (April 13, 1861). 

510. The War Excitement.— The belief that the North and 
West would not fight disappeared at once; the act of "firing 

301 



^02 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



1861 



oil the flag" routed their people to such u pitch of anger as 
had not been known since the Revolution. President Lin- 
coln's call for 75,000 volunteer soldiers was answered foui- 
times over; and money and help of every kind were offered in 
abundance by States and private persons. No one had been 
killed at Sumter: the first blood of the war was shed on the 
anniveisary of the fight at Lexington (x\pril 19: J^ 165), when 




V .^^^^ 



SCALE OF MILES 



V. 



1 



Fort Sumter and Charleston Harbok. 

a Massachusetts regiment on its way to Washington had to 
fight its way through the streets of Baltimore. 1'his increased 
the excitement at the North, and the people of the South, on 
their side, were as wildly excited at the thought that North- 
ern soldiers were coming to attack the South. From this 
time all hope of peace was gone and civil war had begun. 

511. The IJlockade. — The first effort of President Lincoln 
was to establisii a blockade of the Southern ports (§ 308). At 
first he had but three vessels to use for that purpose; but 
others were soon bought or built, and the navy soon became 
very Lirge. It was not believed that any force of vessels could 
stop commerce on a coast 3,000 miles long, in which the Gov- 
ernment did not hold a single harbor as a refuge for its ves- 



1861] EVENTS OF 1861. 203 

sels in case of storm or distress. But the Government was 
determined, and did the work : the blockade never was broken 
throughout the war. Some swift-sailing steamers, called 
" blockade-runners/' succeeded in stealing into Southern 
harbors by night with cargoes of goods, but most of this class 
of vessels were captured. Toward the end of the war, even 
blockade-running was stopped (§ 588). Late in this year, 
expeditions were sent out, which captured Hatteras Inlet, in 
Xorth Carolina, and Port Royal, in South Carolina, as harbors 
of refuge for the blockading vessels; and the navy seized Ship 
Island, near the mouth of the Mississippi, for the same pur- 
pose. 

512. The Second Secession. — The Government's call for 
troops brought on a second secession, of four of the Border 
States, lying between the North and the Gulf States, Virginia, 
North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. They disapproved 
the purpose of the Government to force the seceding States 
back into the Union. Even in tiiese States the people seem 
to have had no great desire to secede; and secession was car- 
ried through mainly by the governors and other State officers. 
Much the same thing was attempted in Kentucky and Mis- 
souri; but the majority of their people finally held those 
States in the Union. 

513. The Confederate States. — After this second secession 
the Confederate States were eleven in number: Virginia, 
North Carolina, Soutii Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 
Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. 
Their capital was changed from Montgomery to Richmond as 
soon as Virginia seceded; and their troops poured into east- 
ern Virginia, which was to be the great battle-ground of the 
war. Richmond was the meeting-place for the Congress of 
the Confederacy, which made its laws; from this place, its 
President, Uavis, directed the movements of its armies; and 
near it were gathered the ablest of the Confederate generals, 
Lee, Johnston, Beauregard, and others. From Harper's 
Ferry there were soon lines of forts, armies, and other de- 
fences southward through Virginia to Norfolk, along the coast 



204 THE CIVIL WAli. [1861 

of the southern Atlantic and tlu* Gulf of Mexico, through 
western Virginia and southern Kentucky, and along the Mis- 
sissippi. 

514. The United States. — The Government of the United 
States refused to recognize the existence of the Confederate 
States, or to consider its jieople as anything else than rebell- 
ious citizens. At first it cared only to hold Maryland, Ken- 
tucky, Missouri, and parts of Virginia, until its new soldiers 
could be trained and formed into armies. In this it was suc- 
cessful; witliin three nujiiths after the surrender of Fort 
Sumter, the people of eleven States, 9,000,000 in number, 
were surrounded by a line of hostile fleets and ai-niies which 
was not broken until the end of the war. 

515. Congress. — The regular meeting-time of Congress was 
not to come until December. But President Lincoln had 
been compelled, in taking steps to defend the country, to do 
many things for which no laws had been passed (>; 740) ; and 
he wished to have Congress in session to provide for such 
matters in future. He called a special session for July 4. It 
voted to consider nothing but war business, appropriated 
$500,000,000 for war expenses, authorized the President to 
call out 500,000 volunteers, and gave him all powers necessary 
to carry on the war. 

51G. Bull Kun. — There had been some skirmishing as the 
armies came into position, but both sides were now eager to 
fight. Scott had been put in connnand of the Uiiion armies, 
and soon after Congress met he gave an unwilling consent to 
an advance of the army near Washington. It met the Con- 
federates at a little stream called Bull Run, about 35 miles 
from AVashington, where Beau I'egutird was posted at^Iauassns 
\ma-n((s'-s(is\ Junction. At first, the advantage was with the 
Union army; but in thq afternoon the Confederate General 
Johnston brougld up a fresh army from the Shenandoah 
[s//en-(ni-</('i'-(i/i] Valley. The half-drilled Union army l)eeanu' 
panic-stricken, and fled in wild disorder to Washington. The 
enemy was in no condition to pursue. 

517. West Virginia. — Many of the people of western Vir- 



1861] 



BVENTS OF 1861. 



205 



ginia had come from Ohio or other Northern States, and held 
to the Union. General George B. McClellan had crossed the 
Ohio River \vit]i a force of Ohio troops; and just before the 
battle of Bull Kun he beat the enemy at Rich Mountain and 
in several other battles, drove their armies across the moun- 



P E N f N S Y 







SCALE OF MILES 



tains into eastern Virginia, and restored western Virginia to 
the Government, so that its people went on to organize a new 
State government of their own under the name of West Vir- 
ginia (§ 568). 

518. The Army of the Potomac. — The people of the North 
had taken very little part in the Mexican war, and had been 
at peace since 1815. The news of the killing and Avounding 
of fathers, brothers, friends, and neighbors in war was a new 
thing to them, though they were to know far more of it in the 
next four dreadful years. They were astounded, but not dis- 
couraged, by their first defeat, and looked for another leader. 
McClellan's success seemed to marked him as the man ; and 
he was called to Washington and given the command of the 



206 THE CIVIL M'Ali. [1861 

armies in pl.ice of 8cott, who retired before the end of t\\v 
year. McClellaii set to work to organize and drill the Arniv 
of the Potomac, and gradually increased it until it numbered 
150,000 well-trained soldiers and was by far the largest and 
tinest army that had yet been seen in the United States. The 
Confederate armies in Virginia were also inireased and drilled: 
and both sides were busily fortifying their capitals, so that 
Richmond and Washington were soon surrounded by long 
lines of forts mounted with heavy cannon. 

519. Wilson's Creek. — During the summer General Xa- 
thaniel Lyon, who had saved Missouri to the Union (§ 512), 
was defeated and killed in the hard-fought battle of Wilson's 
Creek, near Springfield. But he had inflicted such heavy 
loss on the Confederates that they were unable to gain any 
advantage out of their success; and General Henry W. Hal- 
leck, the new Union commander, gradually drove the enemy 
out of Missouri without any great battle. 

520. Military Sniiiiiiary. — In the two great battles of the 
year. Bull Run and Wilson's Creek, the Confederates had 
been successful. There had been a number of smaller battles, 
most of which, with the exception of McClellan's victories in 
western Virginia, h:id been Confederate .'successes or drawn 
battles. But the Confederate successes had been delusive: 
they had gained nothing fi-om any of them. The Union 
forces had gained their main objects. They had saved three 
great States, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, jjart of an- 
other, western Virginia, and the national capital, Washington. 
They had formed a vast army and navy out of notiiing. and 
had walled in the Confederacy with besieging lines. They 
had secured, in Hatteras Iidet. Port Royal, and Ship Island, 
good harbors for their blockading fleets, and points of attack 
on the neighboring territory. The manufactories of the 
North and West were in active o})('ration, commerce with 
foreign countries was free, numey was abundant, and prepai-a- 
tions for the next year's campaigns were encouraging. The 
Confederacy had iu)w no commerce and few manufactories: 
its people must depend for manufactured goods on blockade- 



1861] EVENTS OF 1861. 207 

runuers (§ 511), and its jirmies could depend only on the 
strength and men of their territoi'y. 

521. Foreig'ii Affairs. — Foreign governments were not 
ready to recognize the Confederate States as an independent 
nation, for it was known that the United States would de^- 
clare war against any government which should do so. In- 
stead of doing so, they declared tlie Confederate States a 
belligerent power, that is, a power entitled to make war and 
have war-vessels. This gave Confederate cruisers the right to 
take refuge in foreign harbors. These vessels at first escaped 
from Southern harl)ors through the blockade ; but not much 
damage was done to American commerce until Confederate 
agents began secretly to build swift vessels in Great Britain 
(§551). 

522. The Trent Case. — Late in this year, a United States 
war-vessel stopped an English mail-steamer, the Trent, in the 
West Indies, and took from her two Confederate commission- 
ers. Mason and Slidell, who were on their way to Europe. 
For the moment there seemed to be serious danger of war 
between Great Britain and the United States; but the Ameri- 
can Government, which had always resisted the claim of Eng- 
lish war-vessels to any such right of search of neutral vessels 
(§ 308), ordered the Commissioners to be given up to the 
English Government. 

[Supplementary Eeading.— (g 508) Lives of Lincoln by Arnold, Hol- 
land, Lamon, Riymond, and Hay and Nicolay; Draper, ii. 36; Ridpath, 
482; Johnson, iii. 49; Encyc. Brit., xiv. 658. (§ 509) Draper, ii. 58; Rid- 
path, 484; Wilson, iii. 204; Appleton, i. 664; Greeley, i. 443; Record, i. 
23; Gillet, 266; Lost Cause, 109; Davis, i. 276; Pollard's Davis, 109. 
1^5 510) Draper, ii. 68,73: Ridpath, 485; Wilson, iii. 211; Greeley, i. 
453,463; Record, i. 24; Johnston, 187; Lost Cause, 112, 12:1. (§511) 
Draper, ii. 27, 201; Soley's Blockade and the Cruisers; Ridpath, A^'i^; 
Appleton, i. 71; Greeley, i. 598; Dodge, 33; Lost Cause, 192; Davis, i. 
324. (5^ 512) Draper, ii. 79, 222; Greeley, i. 477; Wilson, iii. 139; John- 
ston, 188; A. H Stephens, ii. 372, 376, 389; Lost Cause, 116, 121; Pol- 
lard's Davis, 119. (§§ 513, 514) Draper, ii. 94, 135; Greeley, i. 498; 
Dodge, 5; A. //. Stephens, ii. 426; T^ost Cause, 130. (g 515) Draper, ii. 
173; Wilson, iii. 220; Greeley, i. 555; Appleton, i. 225; Johnston, 189; 
McPherson, 123; Lost Cause, 175. (i^ 516) Draper, 113; Ridpath, 491; 
Greeley, i. 539; Dodge, 16; Record, ii. 32, 36; Sicinton, 40; McPherson, 
•113; Apypleton, i. 74; Sherman, i. 207; Cent. Mag., April and May, 
1885; Davis, i. 339; Pollard's Davis, 139; /. E. Johnston, 36; A. H. 



208 THE CIVIL WAR. [1862 

Stephens, ii. 470; Tjost Cause, 143; R. W. C. Diary, i. 63. (g 517i 
Draper, ii. 242; Ridpath, 490; Appleton, \. 745; Greeley, i. 520; Dodcje, 
13; McClellaii, 40, 50; Los^ CWm*<?, 169. (J^ 518) Draper, ii. 191,255; 
Swinton, 60; Greeley, i. 618; McClellan. 66. (§ 519) Draper, ii. 232; 
Ridpath, 493; Appleton, i. 755; Dodge, 21; Greeley, i. 577; Record, ii. 
61; Xos< CaMS«, 158; i>«w«, i. 429. (§ 521) Draper, ii. 31, 501; Apple- 
ton, \. 259. (i^o22) Draper, ii. 540; Ridpath, 494; Appleton, i. 693; 
McPherson, 338; ifecorrf, ii. 92, 116. 123; Z<?«i! Cawse^, 194.J 



II. Events of 1862. 

(rf) y>i ///e HW. 

523. Grant's Advauce. — This year in the West was notable 
for the fii'st great success of the general who was to end the 
war, Ulysses S. Grant. General D. C. Buell commanded the 
Union forces in Kentucky, and Grant commanded under him 
at Cairo. Early in the year, by a successful attack on Mill 
Spring, part of Buell's forces had broken the Confeder- 
ate line, which ran through southern Kentucky, under com- 
mand of General Albert Sidney Johnston. Grant, however, 
achieved a still more important success. Moving up the 
Tennessee River with a fleet of gunboats to aid his army, he 
captured Forts Henry and Donelson, and broke up the west- 
ern part of the Confederate line. Giving his opponents no 
time to recover, Grant advanced directly southward, seizing 
Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, on his way, and finally 
established his army at Pittsburgh Landing, on the west side 
of the Tennessee River, in the southern part of Tennessee. 
Buell's army was hurried forward, down the eastern side of 
the river, to join Grant. 

&24. Pittsburgh Laiidinsr, or Sliiloh.— Before Buell could 
reach Grant, Johnston had gathered all his forces to strike 
the camp at Pittsburgh Landing. His attack was made early 
in the morning, and was at first successful. The Union forces 
had no suspicion that an enemy was near them, when the Con- 
.federate line burst on tliem from the woods and drove part of 
the line down to the river bank. The remainder made a 
stubborn resistance, aided by the gunboats in the river. Dui- 



1862] 



1862 IN THE WEST. 



209 



ing the afternoon and night, part of Buell's army reached 
Grant; Johnston had been killed duriug the battle; and the 
next moruing the Union forces advanced and drove the Con- 
federates oif the field. This was the first of the great battles 
of the war: the killed and wounded in it were nearly as many 




SCALE OF MILES 



Mill Spring to Shiloh. 



as the whole army on either side at Bull Run. It is often 
called the battle of Shiloh, from the name of the little church 
around which the heaviest fighting took place. 

525. Corinth — There had been many severe criticisms on 
Grant's management at Shiloh. Halleck (§ 519) was now put 
in command of the army; and he slowly forced the Con- 
federates south through Corinth, which he captured. This 
was the point at which the army had been aiming; for the 
most important railroad of the South passed through it, from 
Memphis to Chattanooga [cJiaf-fa-7ido'-f/a]. Here the Union 
advance stopped for the time. It had opened up the Mis- 
sissippi from Cairo to Memphis; and the Union line now ran 
along the railroad near the southern boundary of Tennessee, 



210 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



[1862 



This success raised Halleck's reputation so high that lie was 
transferred to Washington by the President, leaving Buell 
again in coniniand. 

526. Bragg's Raid. — General Braxton Bragg now took 
Beauregard's place. During the summer he quietly moved 
the larger part of his army eastward until he had passed the 




-> CmftdiruU Forrtt 



SCALE OF MILES 



100 200 

Bragg"s Raid. 



Union line, and then struck north for Kentucky. Buell, who 
was then moving eastward toward Chattanooga, hurried 
northward with a weaker army, and reached Louisville ahead 
of Bragg. Finding that the Kentucky people would not 
join him. Bragg turned slowly southward again, after plunder- 
ing the country for a month. Buell overtook Bragg at Perry- 
ville; but the bittle was indecisive, and the Confederates sue 
ceeded in carrying off their long trains of plunder to Chat- 
tanooga, while the Union army took post at Nashville. 

527. Murfreesboro. — General William S. Rosecrans had 
taken BuelFs place, and just at the end of the year he moved 
southeast from Nashville in an attempt on Chattanooga. 



1862] 1862 IN THE WEST. 211 

About half-way between the two places he came on the Con- 
federates, fortified at Murfreesboro. One of the bloodiest 
battles of the war followed, lasting for three days: it is often 
called the battle of Stone River, from a shallow stream which 
flowed between the two armies. In the end,, the Confederates 
slowly left the field and retired for a few miles, while the 
Union troops were unable to pursue. Both armies then went 
into winter quarters, each watching the other. 

528. Gr.ant and Sherman. — All this time, Grant was left 
in command at Corinth, almost in idleness, though he re- 
pi^lsed two attacks of the enemy. Toward the end of the 
year, he made a first attempt to reach Vicksburgh ; but the 
Confederate cavalry swept in, in the rear of his army, de- 
stroyed the supplies which he had collected, and compelled 
him to return. All this must have been a discouraging lack 
of success for Grant. It was balanced, however, by the close 
friendship which he had already formed for General William 
T. Sherman. From this time the names of Grant and Sher- 
man are as clearly connected as those of Lee and Jackson on 
the other side (§ 54 L). 

529. Pea Ridge. — The Confederates had by this time com- 
pletely given up Missouri; and a complete defeat at Pea 
Ridge, in northwestern Arkansas, forced them to abandon 
Arkansas also for a time, though there was still some guer- 
rilla fighting, that is, attacks upon small parties of Union 
troops by armed men who were not regular soldiers or under 
any military control. 

530. The Western Gunboats. — Much of the year's fighting 
in the West had been done by gunboats. Most of them were 
river-steamboats, covered with iron plates or rails, a ram or 
beak being sometimes added at the prow. Fleets of these 
gunboats controlled the western rivers, clearing the Mississippi 
of the enemy as far south as Vicksburgh. The strongest re- 
sistance made by the Confederates was at Island Number Ten, 
near New Madrid. They fortified it and stopped the gun- 
boats for nearly a month; but the garrison finally surrendered. 



212 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



[1862 



{b) On. the Coast. 

531. The Merriinac. — At the opening of the war, the Con- 
federates had seized the navy-yard at Norfolk, and in it the 
frigate Merrimar. I'hey had turned lier into what was then 
a new thing, an iron-clad ram. Early in this year, she sailed 
out from Norfolk into Hampton Roads, where there was a fleet 
of the finest vessels then in the United States navy. They 
could do nothing with her. They poured a storm of heavy 
shot on her, hut these bounded from her iron roof like rubber 
balls. She sailed around the harbor, ramming and sinking the 
opposing vessels or driving them ashore, until dark, when she 
retired to Norfolk. There was then apparently nothing to 
stop her from sailing to Washington or along the coast, break- 
ing the blockade, and destroying the great Atlantic cities; 
and the telegraph carried the alarming news everywhere. 

532. The Monitor. — Captain John Ericsson (§ 376) had been 
building an iron-clad at New York, which he called the Mon- 
itor. She was much smaller than the Merriniac; her deck 
hardly appeared above the water; and she had but two guns, 
which were fired through a small movable turret. The Con- 
federates called her *' a Yankee cheese-box on a raft." She 

ari'ived at Hampton Roads 
^ two hours after the Mer- 
riniac went back to Nor- 
folk; and the next morn- 
ing, when the Merrimai- 
sailed out again to finish 
her work, the little Monitor 
moved out between her and 
the wooden frigates. After 
four hours of firing and 
lamming, neither vessel 
was seriously injured; but 
the Merrinuic could do 
nothing with her antago- 
nist, and steamed back to 
Norfolk, from which she never came out again (§ 538). The 




SCALE OF MILES 



1862J 



1862 ON THE COAST. 



213 



telegraph carried the joyful news everywhere that " the Mo?ii- 
tor had whipped the Merriinac," and the danger was over. The 
Government soon had a great number of Monitors afloat; and 
other nations began to give up wooden ships and form iron- 
clad navies, so that tins one fight changed tlie navies of tlie 
world. 

533. Captures on the Coast.— Successive expeditions cap- 
tured Roanoke Island (§ 17), 8t. Augustine, and Fort Pulaski, 
at the mouth of the Savannah Kiver. Charleston, Wilming- 
ton, and Mobile were then almost the only good harbors left 
for the blockade-runners; and these were closely watched by 
the navy. But the most important capture was that of New 
Orleans, for it opened up the lower Mississippi. 

534. New Orleans. — The Confederates had made the lower 
Mississippi as dangerous as possible, by forts, iron chains, 
iron-clads and fire-rafts. Early 

in the year, a naval expedition, 
with an army, was sent to Ship 
Island (§ 511). Commodore 
David G. Farragut, who com- 
manded the fleet, becoming 
tired of bombarding the forts, 
chose a dark night and under- 
took to force his way up the 
river. Each vessel fought for 
itself, firing at the forts, the 
gunboats, and the iron-clads as 
they came near her; and none 

of them knew much about the the lower Mississippi. 

result until the smoke cleared away, and they found them- 
selves above the forts. The Confederate fleet had been de- 
stroyed in the battle. The forts and the city of New Orleans 
surrendered soon after. 

535. The Mississippi River — Farragut's fleet sailed up the 
Mississippi until it met the fleet from Memphis; and the river 
was open through nearly all its course. The Confederates 
still had strong forts at Vicksburgh and Port Hudson; but 




214 THE CIVIL WAR. [1862 

they were on bluffs high above the river, so that tlie fleet could 
not capture them, though they could run past in the night. 
There was no army at hand to give assistance, and the cap- 
ture of these two places was left until the next year (§ 558). 

[Supplementary Reading.— (^o'23) Draper, ii. 260. 281; Greeley, ii.41; 
Ridpnth, 496; Dodge, 26; Appleton, ii. 26; Grant, i. 284; R. W. C. Diary. 
i. 110 ; Davis, i. 405. ii. 18 ; A. 11 Stephens, ii. 542 ; Ij)st Cause, 202. 
(§524) Draper, ii. 291; Greeley, ii. 61; Dodge, 42; Appleton, ii. 68; Grant, 
i. 330; Sherman, i. 251; Cent. Mag.. ]March, 1886; Campaigns, ii. 123; 
Davis, ii. 52; Lost Cause, 237. (§525) Draper, ii. 306; Greeley, ii. 71; 
Appleton, ii. 75; Grant, i. 374; Sherman, i. 278; Lost Cause, 320. (§526) 
Draper, ii. 351; Greeley, ii. 212; Dodge, 85; Ridpath. 499; Appleton, ii. 
146; Campaigns, vii. 48; Davis, ii. 382; J., i/! Stephens, ii. 545; Zo«i 
Cause, 327. (§ 527) Draper, ii. 360; Greeley, ii. 270; Campaigns, vii. 87; 
Ridpath, 500; Appleton, ii. 158; Davis, ii. 384; ^4. i/. Stephens, ii. 545; 
/.os< C'/Mse, 346. (§ 528) Draper, ii. 312; Appleton, ii. 152; (r?vt«<, i. 404, 
432; Sherman, i. 307; Z>o(Z£r6, 89; Zos« C««s<;, 334. (§529) Draper, ii. 
237; Greeley, ii. 27; Appleton, ii. 56; Zo«< Cause, 352. (§ 530) Draper, ii. 
210, 294; Ridpath, 497; 2)od£r^, 29; Appleton. ii. 60, 640: Hoppin's i^(W<«. 
(§g 531-2) Draper, ii. 207; Greeley, ii. 115; i^of^^re, 38; Ridpath, 497; 
Appleton, ii. 607; Campaigns, ii. Ill; 6fe/i<. ilf^^., December, 1885. 
(g§ 534-5) Draper, ii. 327; Greeley, ii. 81; Ridpath, 496; Appleton, ii. 631, 
645; Parton's 5«/ier m iVew Orleans; Cent. Mag., July, 1886.] 

(c) /// ///e ^«.si'. 

536. The Virginia Campaigns. — This was a battle-year in 
Virginia. There was almost constant fighting, and four dis- 
tinct campaigns: (1) McClellan's campaign on the Peninsula; 
(2) Pope's campaign l)efore Washington ; (3) the Confederate 
invasion of the North; and (4) Burnside's Fredericksburgh 
campaign. 

537. Tlie Peninsula Campaign. — McClellan wished to take 
his army by water to Fortress Monroe, and thence to move up 
the peninsula between the York and James rivers against 
Richmond. The objection to this was that it opened the way 
to the Confederates for a sudden rush on "Washington, a more 
valuable prize than Richmond. It was finally decided to fol- 
low McClellan's plan, but to keep a part of his army, under 
McDowell, in front of Washington, at Fredericksburgh, and an 
army, under General N. P. Banks, in the Shenandoah Valley. 

538. Yorktown. — As McClellan's army was moved to Fortress 



1862] 



1862 IN Tun EAST. 



21.0 



Monroe, the Confederate general, Johnston (§ 516), moved his 
force from Manassas Junction to meet it. McClellan took 
Yorktown (§ 234) after a siege of a month, and followed the 
retreating enemy nearly to Richmond. The Confederates had 
destroyed the Merrimac, because she drew too much water to 
sail up the James River; and the Union gunboats controlled 
that river to within eight miles of Richmond. 

639. The Chickahominy. ^McClellan undertook to push his 
line far enough north to join McDowell at Frederic ksburgh, 
and get the assistance 
of that army without 
uncovering Washing- 
ton (§ 537). This 
divided his army, 
leaving its two parts 
on opposite sides of 
the Chickahominy, a 
little stream which 
passes Richmond on 
the north and emp- 
ties into the James. 
It is a dangerous 
thing thus to divide 
an army; and in this 
case it ruined a prom- 
ising campaign. 

540. Seven Pines 
and Fair Oak s.— 
Heavy rains came on; 
the Chickahominy 
rose rapidly and car- 
r i e d away the 
bridges; the whole 
country on its banks 
became a great 
swamp, and the two 
parts of McClellan's army might as well have been miles 




PENINSULAE 
CAMPAIGN 



SCALE OF MILES 



216 THE CIVIL \VAR. [1862 

apart, for they could no longer help one another. Johnston 
at once attacked the weaker part, on the Richmond side of 
the Chickahominy, at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, but in this 
first attack the Confederates were beaten. Johnston was so 
badly wounded that he gave up the command to General 
Robert E. Lee. 

541. Lee and Jackson. — Lee, who had been considered the 
ablest officer of the United States regular army, liad followed 
his State (§ 502) when Virginia seceded. From this time, he 
was recognized as the ablest Confederate general. His ablest 
lieutenant was General Thomas J. Jackson, also a Virginian, 
commonly called " Stonewall " Jackson, from the obstinate way 
in which he had held his ground at Bull Kun. He was a man 
of simple character, so intensely religious as to be considered 
a fanatic, and a wonderful general. He was now in command 
in the Shenandoah Valley, against Banks (§ 537), but was soon 
to join Lee. 

542. Jackson's Raid. — Jackson attacked Banks suddenly, 
beat him with a rush, and chased him to the Potomac. In- 
deed, it seemed that the road to Washington was open to 
him, and the authorities at Washington were so much alarmed 
that they called McDowell back from Fredericksburgh to de- 
fend the city. This was just Avhat Jackson wanted, for it 
balked McClellan's plan. He made as much noise as possible, 
but prepai-ed to join Lee before Richmond. 

543. The Seven Days' Battles. — Hurrying southward, Jack- 
son joined Lee, and the two attacked that part of McClellan's 
army north of the Chickahominy at Mechanicsville, a little 
place just north of Richmond. They were repulsed; but 
another battle, next day, at Gaines's Mill, enabled them to 
cut off McClellan from his supplies on the York River. Then 
McClellan began a retreat, southward to the James River, in 
order to reunite the two parts of his army. Lee and Jackson 
followed; and for the rest of the week there was desperate 
tigliting every day, the principal battles being those of 
Savage's Station, Glendale or Frazier's Farm, and Malvern 
Hill. The last-named battle ended the retreat, for Lee was 



1862J 



1862 IN THE EAST. 



217 



repulsed, and McClellan had reached the James Eiver in 
safety. 

544. Pope's Campaign. — General John Pope was now in 

command of the Union 

forces between Fred- 
ericksburgh and Wushnig- 
ton. Leaving Lee to 
watch McOlellan, Jack- 
son moved north, attacked 
and beat Pope on the old 
Bull Run battle-field, and 
chased him back to Wash- 
ington. The authorities 
there hastily called Mc- 
Clellan back to defend the 
capital, and as fast as this 
was done, Lee moved his 
army north to rejoin 
Jackson. Thus, at the 
end of the summer, the 
two armies were about 
where they had been at 
the opening of the year. 

545. First Invasion of the North. — McClellan had hardly 
reached Washington when Lee crossed the Potomac, apparent- 
ly intending to move right oii to Pliiladelphia or Baltimore. 
By hard marching, McClellan came up between Lee and Bal- 
timore, and Lee turned to the northwest, through the moun- 
tains, to meet Jackson, who had captured Harper's Ferry, 
with its garrison and a large amount of supplies. 

546. Antietam. — A successful battle at South Mountain 
brought McClellan through the mountain-passes, and Lee 
turned and fought the great battle known as Antietam 
\an-tee'-tam^, from the little creek which runs through the 
battle-ground, or Sharpsburgh. It was a drawn battle, but the 
Confederates were forced to give up the invasion of the North, 
and retire to their old position near Fredericksburgh. McClel- 




SCALE OF MILES 



Seven Days' Battlrs. 



218 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



[1862 



lau was blamed for his slowness in pursuing, and the command 

of the army was taken 
from him and given to 
Oeneral Ambrose E. 
Huruside. 

547. Fredericksburgh, 
— Crossing the Rappa- 
luiunock at Fredericks- 
l)urgh, Burnside sent his 
army to storm the hills 
on the other side, which 
Lee and Jackson had 
carefully fortified. There 
was a frightful slaugh- 
ter, and after the worst 
defeat of the war, tlie 
Army of the Potomac 
retreated across the Eap- 
pahannock. The com- 
mand was then taken 
from Burnside and given 
to General Joseph E. 
Hooker. Operations in 
the East ceased, for it 
was now late in December. 

548. Military Sum- 

First Invasion of the North. mary. — ine advantages 

were all with the Union forces in the spring of 1862. Mill 
Spring, Forts Henry and Donelson, Pea Kidge, Pittsburgh 
Landing, and Corinth, in the West, the naval battle in Hamp- 
ton Roads, Roanoke Island and New Orleans, on the coast, 
were all important Union victories. Bragg's raid into Ken- 
tucky, and the disasters in Virginia during the rest of the year, 
were discouraging, but they lost no territory. The two great 
attempts by Lee and Bragg to break through the besieging lines 
of armies had been beaten back. The Union lines had been 
advanced across the whole State of Tennessee; the Mississippi 




Cvn/rilir 



SCALE OF MILES 



1862] 1862 m THE EAST. 219 

had beeu almost opened, aud great pieces had been taken out 
of the Confederacy in every direction. The blockade was 
growing stricter, so that the Southern people wei-e in want of 
such common medicines as quinine. But there was no notion 
now that the war was to be an easy conquest. More than a 
million volunteers had been called for, and there were more 
than 600 vessels in the navy. The Government was spending 
more than $3,000,000 a day. 

519. Emancipation. — There was a strong feeling in the 
North that slavery was the real cause of the war, and many 
even of those who had once censured the Abolitionists (§ 414) 
now felt an increasing desire that the President should attack 
slavery as a war-measure. Just after the battle of Antietam 
President Lincoln issued his first Emancipation Proclamation, 
warning the seceding States that he would declare their slaves 
free unless they returned to the Union before the end of the 
year. No seceding State returned, and the final Emancipation 
Proclamation was issued, January 1, 1863. From that time 
the army and navy considered all negroes free men, and re- 
fused to allow their former masters to treat them as slaves. 
Colored men were also enlisted as soldiers and sailors.* 

550. Paper Money. — Much of the cost of the war liad been 
met by loans in the form of bonds, or promises to pay, with 
interest, in future. As a further resource, the Government 
now began to issue paper money in bills, often called '' green- 
backs," from the color of the ink with which their backs were 
printed. They were promises to pay in future, without in- 
terest, but were made legal tender: that is, any one who owed 
a debt had the right to pay it in paper, no matter how much 
the paper might have decreased in value. It did decrease in 
value (§563), but never as much as Continental money (§ 210) 
or Confederate money (§ 563). 

551. Confederate Privateers. — Confederate agents in Eng- 
land built and armed two fast-sailing steamers, the Alabama 
and the Florida. The British Government was not sufficiently 

* It was not until 1865 that the Constitution was so amended as to forever foibiii 
slaverj- (§620). 



220 THE CIVIL WAR. [1863 

careful to detain them, and they escaped to sea, and soon 
almost entirely drove American commerce from the ocean. 
Whenever they were closely chased by American war-vessels, 
they found refuge in British hurbors. And, as they were 
British built, British armed, and manned mostly by Britisli 
sailors, the American people were indignant at what they con- 
sidered a British trick to destroy the commerce of a friendly 
nation (§ 649). 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§g 537-8) Draper, ii. 368; Greeley, ii. 107; 
Campaigns, m; Dodge, 49; liidpaih, 502; McClellan, 25'd; J. E.Johnston, 
117; Appleton, ii. 83; Swinton, 79, 108; B. W. C. Dmry. i. 129; Cent. 
Mug., May, 1885; Davis, ii. 87; Lost Cause, 265. (§§539-40) Draper, ii. 
384; Greeley, ii. 141; Itidpath, 503; Dodge, 55; Appleton, ii. 100, 113; 
Sicinton, 123, 129; McVlellan, 346, 361; J. E. Johnston, 132; Davis, ii. 
120; A. II. Stephens, ii. 539; Lost Cause. 279. (§ 541) Cooke's Lee; Ches- 
uey'& Military Biography; Dahney'& Jackson ; Cooke's Jackso7i; Rau- 
dolph's Jackson; Foliaid's Davis, 229, 425. (§542) Draper, ii. 390; 
Greeley, ii. 176; Dodge, 55; Ridpjath, 502; Appleton, ii. 105; Cooke's 
Jackson, 137; Kundolph's Jackson, 133; Cent. Mag., June, 1885; Davis, 
ii. 106; Lost Cause, 272. (§543) Draper, ii. 400; Greeley, ii. 152; Bid- 
path, 504; McClellan, 410; Dodge. 62; Appleton, 118; Sitinton, 140; Cent. 
Mag., June, July, and August, 1885; Cooke's, Jackson. 200; Randolph's 
Jackson, 175; B. W. C. Diary, i. 136; Davis, ii. 130; Lost Cause. 283. 
(§544) Draper, ii. 427; Greeley, ii. 172, 179; Campaigns, iv; Bidpath, 
505; Dodge, 69; Sicinton. 168; Appleton, ii. 126; Cooke's Jackson, 251; 
Randolphs Jac^-«o«.. 211; Z>«rM, ii. 312; ios< C«wse, 299. (§§545-6) 
Draper, ii. 449; Campaigns, v; Greeley, ii. 193; Swinton, 195; Bidpath, 
506; McClellan, 54Q; Appleton, ii. 137; Dodge, 102; Cent. Mag., May md 
June, 1886; Cooke's Jackson, 307; Pollard's i>«w, 240; ix)*^ C«i/««. 310. 
(§ 547) Draper, ii. 468; Greeley, ii. 342; CamjMigns, v; Bidpath, 509; 
2)e/(f5^e, 110; Appleton. ii. 165; Sicinton, 230; O/i^. 3/«£?., Sept., 1886; 
Cooke's /«<;A-w?i, 367; Davis, ii. 351; Zos< C<r?/.v^, 339. (§549) Draper, 
ii 607; Greeley, ii. 252; McPherson. 227; Bidpath, 511; P/es/o/i, 313; 
lFi7*o;t, iii. 386; Ajyjileton, ii. 792; J^. if. Stephens, ii. 551; Z<?s< Cause, 
358; G'2'«€<, 282; Z>«m ii. 186. (§550) Z>mj9e;-, ii. 572; McPherson, 251; 
Gillet, 286. (§551) Greeley, ii. 642; Appleton, ii. 381, 600; Cfe»<. Jfa^^., 
April, 1886.] ' 

III. Events of 18G;J. 
(a) 7w ^7/e .£Vif.s'/. 

652. Chancellorsville. — Hooker (§ 547) was known as a 
"lighting general"; and after some months of preparation 
he led the Army of the Potomac across the Rapiiahannock 
again, keeping to the north of the strong defences behind 



1863] 



1863 IN TEE EAST. 



221 



Fredericksburgh. Lee aucl Jackson met him at a little place 
called Chancellorsville, and by skilful generalship defeated 
him and drove him back again over the Rappahannock. But 
during the night after the first day's battle, the Confederates 
suffered the heavier loss in the death of " Stonewall " Jackson, 
who was shot, through mistake, by some of his own men. Lee 
said very truly, that he had lost his right arm in losing 
Jackson. 

553. Second Invasion of the North. — Early in the summer. 




SCALE OF MILES 



20 60 100 

Second Invasion of the North. 



Lee attempted a second invasion of the North, moving north- 
ward through the Shenandoah Valley, while Hooker moved 
in the same direction, but nearer Washington. Lee's advance 
came near Harrisburgh, and caused great alarm in the North, 



222 THE CIVIL WAF. [1863 

All business was stopped in Philadelphia, and militia regiments 
were hurried forward from all tlie States to increase the Army 
of the Potomac. General George G. Meade took the place of 
Hooker as commander. 

554. Gettysbnrgh. — Under its new commander, the Army 
of the Potomac moved up between Lee and Philadelphia, and 
the great battle of Gettysburgh followed (July 1, 2, and 3). 
The Union army was on the crest of a line of iiills called 
Cemetery Kidge; the Coiiledenite army was on the crest of a 
line of hills opposite, called Seminary Ridge; between them, 
in the valley, was the town of Gettysburgh. The first day's 
fighting was rather in favor of the Confederates. On the 
second day, they even gained one of the Union positions. 
The final struggle came on the third day. After a tremendous 
fire of two hours from 150 cannon, the Confederates made their 
last charge in a line more than a mile long. It was gallantly 
made, and gallantly repulsed after a three hours' struggle. 
When the sun set, the battle of (iettysburgh was over, and 
Lee was defeated. 

555. Lee's Retreat. — Lee's army never fully recovered from 
its terrible losses at Gettysburgh. It made good its retreat, 
and was followed by the Army of the Potomac to its old posi- 
tion on the Rapidan. Here it remained in sullen quiet until 
Grant came to give it its last campaign in the folloAving year 
(§ 573). 

{h) In the West. 

556. Grant's Army. — The great object of this year in the 
West was to take Vicksburgh and Port Hudson (§ 535), so as 
to gain entire control of the Mississippi. sj)lit the Confederacy 
into two parts, and prevent the Confederates from bringing 
cattle and grain from the country beyond the ^lississippi, 
which had felt very little of the war. One Union army, under 
Rosecrans, was near Murfreesboro (§ 527). Another, und(M' 
Banks, in Louisiana, was to attack Port Hudson. Another, at 
Holly Springs, was under Grant; and the great work of at- 
tacking Vicksburgh fell to liim. His ablest assistant was Gen- 



1863] 



1863 IN THE WEST. 



223 



eral William T. Sherman; and it was during this year that 
Grant and Sherman became the leading Union generals 
(§ 528). 

557. The Confederate Forces. — The Confederate conimandor 
in the AVest was J. E. Johnston (§ 540), who was, next to Lee, 
the most skilful of the Confederate generals. He wanted no 
siege of Vicksburgh, but wished to fight Grant in the open field. 
But Pemberton, who was in command at Vicksburgh, was so 
much elated at his success in driving Grant back the year 
before (§ 528), that he gave but a half-heartetl obedience to 
Johnston's orders, and went on preparing for a siege. 

558. The Vicksburgh Campaign. — Early in the year. Grant 
moved his army down the 
Mississippi to a point op- 
posite Vicksburgh, where 
he endeavored unsuccess- 
fully for two months to 
cut a canal across a bend 
in the river, so as to turn 
the river from its course, 
and leave Vicksburgh at a 
distance from it. He then 
moved his army still far- 
ther south, and crossed 
the river to its Vicksburgh 
side, at Grand Gulf. His 
army was stronger than 
Johnston's or Pember- 
ton 's separately ; and, by 
moving northeast to 
Jackson, where Johnston 
was posted, he broke in 
between them. Attack- the vicksburgh campaign. 

iug Johnston, he drove that army eastward beyond Jackson. 
Then, turning and moving straight westward, he drove Pem- 
berton's forces into Vicksburgh, and formed the siege of that 
place. From that time, his grip on the place could not be 




SCALE OF MILES 



224 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



[1863 



loosened. He threatened Johnston in his rear, while he be- 
sieged Pemberton in his front; and, after a siege of six weeks, 
the place surrendered, with the army within it (July 4). Port 
Hudson surrendered five days afterward. 

659. Chickamaiig-a. — Wliile Grant was besieging Vicks- 
bnrgh, Rosecrans was moving south from Murfreesboro, and 
gradually moved part of his army so far around Chattanooga 
that Bragg was forced to evacuate that place, and retire about 
twelve miles south to a little creek called the Chickamauga 
[chik-a-maw' -ya\ Rosecrans pursued, and was defeated in 
the battle of Chickamauga. Most of his men fled in confusion 
to Chattanooga; but a part, under General George H. 'I'homas, 
held their ground obstinately, and covered the retreat. 
Bragg followed and shut the Union army up so closely in 
Chattanooga that it was almost starved. The whole country 
was alarmed lest it should be forced to surrender. 

660. Lookout Monntain and Missionary Ridge. — All eyes 
were now turned 
to Grant, who was 
given command of 
thewestern armies. 
He went to Chat- 
tanooga, taking 
Sherman and other 
generals in whom 
he had confidence, 
and drawing men 
from other armies. 
He found Bragg's 
Lookout Mountain 




irmy [)osted on 

and Missionary 
Ridge, nearly half a mile high, acrosi^ 
the river from Chattanooga, and sd 
strongly fortified as to seem to defy 
attack. Having made all prepara- 
tions. Grant gave the order; the men crossed the river, and 
the lofty positions of Bragg's army were carried by sudden 
assaults. The result surprised the Union troops almost as 



1863] 1863 IN THE WEST. 225 

much as it did the Confederates. Part of the fighting was 
done so high up the mountain-side that the troops were hid- 
den by the clouds, so that the battle of Lookout Mountain is 
often called " the battle above the clouds." Bragg's army 
retreated to Dalton, where Johnston was put in command of 
it. Operations in the West then ceased for the rest of the 
year. 

661. Military Summary. — The war had brought out a new 
set of generals in the West, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, Thomas, 
and others, who were very hard and fast fighters, and gave the 
enemy no rest. They had opened the Mississippi, and had 
thus split the Confederacy into two parts, each of which had 
to fight for itself, while the Federal Government could send 
troops from the North to either side of the river. They now 
held the West down to the southern boundary of Tennessee. 
In the East less had been done, and Lee was still a match for 
his opponents; but his last and strongest attempt to break 
through the attacking line and carry the war into the North 
had been a failure, and his army was no longer in any condi- 
tion to renew it. It seems now that the month of July, 1863, 
in which came the battle of Gettysburgh and the surrenders 
of Vicksburgh and Port Hudson, was the turning-point of the 
war, after which the Confederacy grew steadily weaker and its 
armies less confident. 

[Supplementary Reading.— (§ 552) Drape?', iii. 106; 0-reeley, ii. 342; 
Campiiigns. vi; Ridiiaih, 518; Swinton, 267; GUman, 522; Dodge. 127; 
Appleton, iii. 80; Cent. Mag.. Sept.. Oct., 1886; Davis, ii. 357; Pollard's 
Davis, 271; Lost Cause, 371; Cooke' s Jackson, 398; Randolph's JacAsoTi, 
296; R. W. C. Diary, i. 307. (§S 553-5) Draper, iii. 125, 136; Oreeley, 
ii. 367; Swinton, 308; Ridpath, 519; Dodge, 132, 136; Appleton. iii. 87, 
102; Campaigns, vi; Cent. Mag., Nov., 1886, Feb., 1887; Davis, ii. 437; 
Pollard's Davis, 288; Lost Cause. 402; R. W. C. Diary, i. 354, 366. 
(§8 556-8) Draper, iii. 25; Oreeley, ii. 286, 322; Campaigns, viii; Ridpath, 
511; Gilman, 523; Dodge, 142, 156; Grant, i. 439,473; Sherman, i. 332; 
Appleton. iii. 41, 58, 69; Cent. Mag., Sept., 1885; Cave Life in Vicksburgh; 
J. E. Johnston, 174, 216; Davis, ii. 391, 414; Pollard's Davis, 297; Lost 
Cause, 386; R. W. C. Diary, i. 374. (i^ 559) Draper, iii. 57; Greeley, ii. 
404; Ridpath, 513; Gilman, 524; Dodge, 172; Campaigns, vii. 193: Sher- 
man, i. 378; Cent. Mag., Nov., 1885, April, May, 1887; N. A. Rev., 
Dec, 1885; Davis, ii. 429; A H. Stephens, ii. 579; Lost Cause, 447; R. 
W. C. Diary, ii. 49. (§ 560) Draper, iii. 57; Greeley, ii. 404; Ridpath, 
515; Oilman, 527; Dodge, 184; Oraiit, ii. 17, 31; Slierman, i. 372; Cent. 



226 THE CIVIL WAR. [1868 

Mag., Nov., 1885, April, 1886; Davis, ii. 434; A. H. Stephens, ii. 580; 
R. W. C. Diary, ii. 105; Lost Cause, 455.] 



{c) Internal Affairs. 

662. Affairs in the South. — There was by this time great 
and general distress among the Southern people. Their gov- 
ernment had forced all the men between the ages of 18 and 
45 into the army, so that women and children now had to do 
men's work. The soldiers were badly fed, clothed, and 
equipped. Food was scarce and dear, for the people could 
now get no cattle from beyond the Mississippi, no grain from 
Virginia or Tennessee, no sugar from Louisiana, and no salt 
or fish from the coast. Cotton could not be sold, for the 
blockade was so strict that it could not be sent abroad. The 
railroads were wearing out, and there were no great iron-works 
to replace them. It was almost impossible to get such com- 
mon articles as pinB or paper; and printing was sometimes 
done on one side of old wall-paper. The government had 
issued so much paper money that it was almost worthless: 
one dollar in gold was worth twenty dollars in Confederate 
money; and it required twenty times as much paper money as 
gold to buy anything (§ 550). 

563. In the North and West. — There was no such distress in 
the North and West. Food, manufactures, and money were 
abundant; and the government was able to borrow a large 
part of the money needed to carry on the war. Paper money 
had been issued (§ 550), and had fallen in value so that 
one dollar in gold was worth one and a half dollars in paper; 
but wages had increased nearly enough to make this good. 

664. The Tariff. — The Northern people urged their repre- 
sentatives to tax them heavily in order to carry on the Avar. 
Much of this taxation fell on manufacturers; and it was felt 
to be but fair that the duties on imports should be increased, 
in order that the price of foreign goods in this country should 
not be lower tlian that of the highly-taxed American goods, 
but that the foreign and the American manufacture should 



1863] INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 227 

both be taxed alike. The tariff of duties on imported goods 
was therefore increased steadily throughout the war. All this 
was voted for hymen who were not Protectionists, but it made 
a still more Protective Tariff (§ 340). It was not altered for 
nearly twenty years after the war. 

565. The National Banks. — In order to encourage the sale 
of bonds, the National Banking system was established this 
year. Banks were not allowed to issue bills without depositing 
a slightly larger amount of bonds at Washington. This made 
the bills perfectly safe (§ 406), while it comj)elled the banks 
to buy bonds, that is, to take part in loaning money to the 
government. 

566. The Army. — The Union soldiers were well fed, 
clothed, and equipped, and the people formed Sanitary Com- 
missions, Christian Commissions, and other associations to care 
for the comfort of the soldiers in the field. These associations 
built hospitals, distributed food, medicines, and assistance of 
every kind, and cared for the sick and wounded. To help 
pay their expenses, great fairs were held all over the country, 
on a scale never equalled before or since. 

667. The Draft. — Volunteering had become slow, and a 
draft was used to fill up the armies. Names were drawn by 
lot from lists of able-bodied men all over the country, and 
those whose names were drawn were forced to enter the army 
or pay for a substitute. The first draft in New York City, 
in July, was stopped by a great mob, which held control of 
the city for several days, burning houses and murdering 
negroes at its will, from an idea that they had caused the war 
and the draft. Finally, it was scattered by soldiers hurried 
back from Gettysburgh (§ 554), some smaller riots elsewhere 
were suppressed, and drafting went on unopposed. 

568. West Virg-inia. — The western part of Virginia, which 
had refused to take part in secession (§ 517), was admitted to 
the Union as the State of West Virginia (1863). 

569. Confederate Privateers. — American commerce was 
ruined this year by the Confederate privateers, Alabama, 
Florida and Georgia, all built in Great Britain (§ 551). It 



228 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 

had become so unsafe for American merchantmen to attempt 
voyages tliat they were often sold to foreigners, generally to 
British firms. 

570. Mexico. — After the troubles in the United States 
began, France overturned the republican government of 
Mexico, and made it an empire, with Maximilian, an Austrian 
archduke, as emperor. The United States considered this an 
unfriendly act (§ 35 G), but could do nothing just then to 
resist it. 

[Supplementary Reading. — (^ 5^2) Draper, ii. 171, iii. 480; Cent. Mag., 
Aug., lUbd ; Appkton, iii. 16, iv. 206; Lost Cause, 478; Pollard's 
Davis, 826, 837, 349, 363 ; E. W. C. Diary, ii. 16. 35, 56, 77, 96, 101. 114, 
183 ; Andrews, 7, 31 ; Estvan's War Pictures from ike South ; Eggle- 
stou's Rebel's Recollections. (§ 564) Taussig, 8 ; Appleton, iv. 371. (§ 565) 
Appleton, iii. 296, 400. (§ 566) Draper, iii. 515 ; Appleton. iii. 502, iv. 
733, bOl ; AlcoU's Hospital Sketches; Frank Moore's Women of the War. 
(§ 567) Draper, iii. 437, 442 ; Oreeley, ii. 487, 501 ; Ridpath, 522 ; 
Appleton, \\\. ZQ\. mi. (§568) Johnson, iv. 1377; Appleton. iii. 845. 
(§569) Greeley, ii. 641 ; Draper, iii. 200; Appleton, iii. 340, 661 ; 
Davis, ii. 245. (§570) Draper, ii. 515 ; Appleton, iv. 314, 519.] 



IV. Events of 1864. 

571. Confederate Positions. — There were now but two great 
Confederate armies in the field, Lee's in Virginia, and John- 
ston's at Dalton (§ 560). Johnston's position was in a moun- 
tainous country, which extended beyond Atlanta, giving him 
a great many defensive points, and making it difficult to drive 
him back into the flat country between Atlanta and the sea. 

572. Union Positions. — Grant was now given command of 
all the Union armies, with the rank of lieutenant-general, 
and went to Virginia to meet Lee, taking his best cavalry 
officer, Sheridan, with him. He left Sherman to command 
the western armies which had been gathered in front of 
Ualton. Grant and Sherman agreed that the forAvard move- 
ment should begin on the same day, and that each should 
keep his opponent so busy that the two Confederate armies 
should not be able to help one anothei', as they had been in 
the habit of doing. 



1864] 



1864 IN THE. EAST. 



229 



{a) In the East. 

573. The Wilderness. — Grant had decided to take the 
overland route from the Eappahannock to Richmond througli 
what was known as the " AVilderness." It was crossed from 




Vnion Forces __»— >— -Ca Confederate . 

SCALE OF MILES 



s= 



west to east by many rivers, and was filled by Confederate 
fortifications, manned by the best of the Confederate armies 
commanded by the best of the Confederate generals. As soon as 
the Army of the Potomac was fairly across the Rappahannock, 
the struggle began ; and for two weeks, in the Wilderness and 
at Spottsylvania, the two armies grappled. The fighting and 
the slaughter were the most frightful of the war ; and the 
scene was made worse by the dense darkness of the woods and 
thickets filled with smoke, or by the forest fires which sprang 



230 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 

up aud roasted the wouuded. And after all, Lee held his 
ground : the direct attack had failed, 

674. Flank Moyements. — Grant was superior in men, and 
he used this superiority to drive Lee from liis defences, by 
attacking lightly in front, at the same time pushing part of 
his force to the left, attacking the rear of Lee's army, and so 
forcing him to retreat to a new position. In this manner 
Grant worked his way southward as fur as the Chickahominy 
(§ 539). Lee was now inside of the main defences of Rich- 
mond, the centre of which was at Cold Harbor. Here the 
direct attack was tried again. The whole army was ordered to 
assault the Confederate lines at once ; but the assault was re- 
pulsed with heavy loss to the assailants. 

675. Passing the James. — It was evident that the defences 
on the north of the city, prepared as they had been by years 
of work, were too strong to be taken by assault ; and Grant 
determined to move his army around to the left, pass the 
James River, and attack the city from the south. In doing 
so, the army followed nearly the line of the Seven Days' 
Battles of two years before (§ 543), but with little fighting. 
The army had no sooner crossed the James than it came up 
against the fortifications of Petersburgh, which were also too 
strong to be taken by assault. Within them was Lee's army, 
which had moved across from Richmond as Grant had moved. 

676. Siege of Petersburgh. — It was now clear that Peters- 
burgh and Richmond could be taken only by regular siege ; 
and the siege lasted until the end of the war, nine months 
afterward. The Confederate fortifications from the north 
of Richmond to the south of Peiersbui-gh were about thirty 
miles long. Grant's army, about twice as strong as Lee's, 
was fortified before it, attacking it at different places, and 
keeping Lee so busy that he could not interfere with the 
operations in the AYest. Grant's constant effort was to push 
his lines farther round to the southwest, so as to seize the 
railroads which brought food to Lee's army. "Whenever he 
succeeded in doing so, Lee had to face him with new fortifica- 
tions. Thus Lee's line was always growing weaker as it grew 



1864] 



1864 IN THE WEST. 



231 



longer, for he could hardly get any fresh troojjs, while Grant 
had as many as he needed. 

577. Winchester. — The Shenandoah Valley was guarded by 
a Union army under Sheridan, who had defeated the Con- 
federate General Early in the battle of Winchester. About a 
month after the battle, Early surprised the Union army at 
Cedar Creek, some twenty miles southwest of the place of the 
former battle, and defeated it while Sheridan was absent at 
Winchester. The news came to Sheridan, who galloped the 
whole distance, met and turned back his retreating men, and 
defeated Early, driving him far up the valley, and ending the 
war in this part of Virginia. 



(b) In the West 

678. Sherman's Adyance. — Johnston's retreat before the ad- 
vance of Sher- 
man's superior 
army, from Dal- 
ton to Atlanta, 
has always been 
admired by Union 
officers as one of 
the most skilful 
operations of the 
war. Every posi- 
tion was held just 
long enough, and 

abandoned as soon as Sherman's 
forces began to lap around toward 
the rear ; then Johnston retired 
cautiously to another position, and 
the same process was gone through 
again. Neither general was careless 
enough to give the other the slightest advantage. The prin- 
cipal battles were at Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain, 
and then Johnston was at his strongest position, Atlanta, 




232 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 

All Sherman's supplies were now brought by a single railroad, 
300 miles long, from Nashville ; and many of his men had to 
be placed to guard it, for any accident to tliis road would 
leave his men without food. Johnston was behind fortifica- 
tions which he had prepared long before, and he was now 
ready to fight the long-delayed battle. 

579. Removal of Johnston. — The people of the Confederacy 
did not quite understand the skill of Johnston's retreat. They 
were startled as Sherman's storm of war came rolling up to 
the edge of the Georgia mountains above them ; and Jefferson 
Davis, who had a singular dislike for Johnston, made this 
feeling an excuse for removing him and putting General J. 
B. Hood, a " fighting general," in his place. The results were 
that he thus threw away all the advantages gained by John- 
ston ; one of the two great Confederate armies was utterly 
lost before the end of the year, and the Confederacy itself 
fell in the following spring. 

580. Capture of Atlanta. — Hood made three furious attacks 
on Sherman, the severest battles yet fought in Georgia, and 
was beaten in all three. Sherman then fought his way 
around to the rear of Atlanta ; Hood was compelled to leave 
the city, and Sherman was able to telegraph north, "Atlanta 
is oui's and fairly won." 

581. Hood's Cliang:e of Plan. — Early in the autumn, by 
Davis's directions, Hood changed the whole plan of the Con- 
federate campaign. He left Sherman's front, and marched 
northwest toward Tennessee, hoping to compel Sherman to 
pursue him and thus change the war to a point nearer the 
North. Davis had been unwise enough to make speeches 
announcing the change of plan, so that Sherman had pre- 
pared for it by sending nearly half his army to Nashville, 
under Thomas (§559), and calling troops from all over the 
North to the same place. ' He made a show of pursuing Hood 
until he saw him fairly started for Tennessee, and then re- 
turned to Atlanta, tearing up the railroad behind him as he 
came, so as to have no further communication with the 
North (§ 583). 



1864] 



1864 IN THE WEST. 



233 



582. Dispersion of Hood's Army. — As Hood drew near Nash- 
ville,, he suflfered severely in a battle at Franklin; but lie 
pressed on and besieged Nashville. After long preparation 
Thomas burst out upon the besiegers, completely defeated 
them, and kept up the pursuit so vigorously that Hood's 
army was scattered in every direction. One of the Confed- 
eracy's two great armies had thus faded into nothing. 

583. Sherman's Position. — Sherman, at Atlanta, had an 
army of GO, 000 picked veteran troops, one of the finest armies 
of the war, and before him a country in which there was not an 
organized Confederate army between him and Virginia, nor 
the material to make one. In the middle of November he 
burned Atlanta, cut the telegraph wires to the North, and set 
out on his march southeast to the sea. But the sea was not 
his final destination : his real aim was at the back of Lee's 
army, far away in Virginia.* 

584. Marching through Georgia. — For nearly a month tlie 
people of the North knew little as to what had become of 




Sherman's army. It was marcliing leisurely through Georgia, 
by way of Milledgeville and Millen, to Savannah. It moved 



* Sherman says : "In fact, I simply moved from Atlanta to Savannah as one sfep 
in the directioa of Richmond." 



2B4 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 

in four columns, covering a strip of country 60 miles wide, all 
of which was made desolate. The railroads were destroyed; 
and the depots, bridges, and public property were burned. 
This the army liad a right to do, for it was making war on 
the owners of this property. The army " lived on the 
country," that is, took necessary food wherever it could find 
it ; this also is a right of war. Besides all this, there was a 
great deal of damage to private property, of which we can only 
say that it was impossible to guard against it. There was 
hardly any resistance to the march; indeed, it is doubtful 
whether on the open field any army of the war could have 
successfully resisted this army of Sherman's. 

685. Capture of Savannah. — The army reached Ossabaw 
Sound, on the Georgia coast, in safety, and opened communi- 
cation with the blockading vessels. Fort McAllister, which 
guarded Savannah, was taken by assault ; and just before 
Christmas Savannah surrendered. The army remained here 
for some two months. 

(c) On the Coast. 

686. The Blockade. — All through the year the blockade 
was kept up strictly; and attacks were made on various points 
of the coast, in order to prevent the Confederates from send- 
ing assistance to Hood and Lee, and to capture Mobile and 
Wilmington, the last ports of the Confederacy for blockade- 
running (§ 511). In Louisiana a land expedition was sent 
up the Red River, under Banks, for the pur})Ose of seizing the 
country west of New Orleans ; but it was a failure. 

687. Mobile Bay. — While Sherman was fighting before At- 
lanta, Farragut (§ 534), with four monitors and a number 
of wooden frigates, fought his way into Mobile Bay, passing 
two strong forts and a nuhiber of torpedoes, and capturing a 
powerful iron-clad ram. The passage of the forts, during which 
Farragut stationed himself in the rigging of his vessel in order 
to see over the smoke, is oftenost spoken of ; but the fight in 
the bay is fully as noteworthy, for Farragut attacked the iron- 



1864] 



1864 ON THE COAST. 



235 



clad ram with his wooden vessels, which ramTned her until their 
bows were broken off, and helped 
materially ia capturing her. Farra- 
gut's exploit ended blockade-run- 
ning at Mobile. 

588. Capture of Wilmington. — 
The entrance to Wilmington was 
guarded by Fort Fisher. Just as 
Sherman reached the coast, an ex- 
pedition was sent from Fortress 
Monroe to take Fort Fisher 
but it returned without ac 
complishing the work 
Grant sent it back 
again at once un 
der anothei 
commandej-. 

General 
Terry, who 
took the fort by 
assault, and Wil- 
mington surrendered 
soon after. The Coufed- 
erates had now but one har- 
bor on the coast, Charleston, 
and that was blockaded very 
closely. 

58C. Military Summary. — The year's operations had crushed 
in the shell of the Confederacy. One of the two great Con- 
federate armies had been destroyed in the battle of Nashville. 
There was but one other — that of Lee, in Virginia; and he 
could do nothing to help the States farther south, for any 
weakening of his line would be followed by an instant attack 
from Grant, who was watching him closely. Sherman at 
Savannah could go where he pleased, for there was nothing 
to resist him ; and it was evident that he meant to go to Vir- 
ginia, and crush Lee between two armies. The people of the 




236 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 

Confederacy seemed to be worn out and discouraged by the 
terrible distress which they had endured for four years; and 
so many of tlie able-bodied men had been killed or crippled 
that it was not easy to find men for new Confederate armies, 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§ 573) Draper, iii. 364 ; Campaigns, xii. 
18; Crrant, ii. 177, :ilG ; Greeley, ii. 566; Swinton, 402; Ridpath, 535; 
Dodge, 197; Appleton, iv. 95; Cent. Mug., Feb. 1886, June 1887; Davis, 
ii. 518; A. H. Stephens, ii. 584 ; Lost Cause, 513. (§ 574) Draper, iii. 
381; Greeley, ii. 577; Ridpath, 535; Dodge, 213; Campaigns, xii. 119, 
160; Appleton, iv. 113; Swinton, 574; Grant, ii. 243, 264; Davis, ii. 523; 
Lost Cause, 524, 527. (;i 575) Draper, iii. 390; Camimigns, xii. 194; 
Greeley, ii. 583; Ridpath, 536; Dodge, 244; Appleton, iv. 119; Grant, ii. 
279, 292; Lost Cause. 528. (v^ 576) Draper, iii. 395; Campaigns, xii. 
246: Greeley, ii. 584; Ridpath, 538; Do^/^-e, 248; Appleton, iv. 120; Gra»<, 
ii. 299, 307; Swinton, 497; Davis, ii. 637; io6< 6V;/s«, 536. 607. (^ 577) 
Draper, iii. 410; Campaigns, x\.; Greeley, \\. QQl; Ridpath, Tt'dl; Sicinton, 
556; Dodge, 269; Appleton, iv. 152; 6V««<, ii. 317. 329, 336; Davis, ii. 
533; Lost Cause, 5y3, 598. (^^ 578) Draper, iii. 267; Campaigns, \x.; 
Greeley, ii. 625; Ridpath, 525; Dodge, 223; Appleton, iv. 68; Grant, ii. 
159; Sherman, ii. 5; Ce?i^. Jl/r;^'.. July, Aug., 1887: Davis, ii. 547; </. j^. 
Johnston, 277; J.. IT. Stephens, ii. 585; Zos< Cause, 540. (>i 579) Draper, 
iii. 290; Greeley, ii. 630; Dodge, 255; Appleton. iv. 79; Sherman, ii. 72; 
Z>av««, ii. 556; /. ^. Johnston, 349; Pollard's i)am. 372, 383; Zo«; Cawse, 
577. (§580) Draper, iii. 304; Campaigns, ix.; Greeley, ii. 635; Ridpath, 
526; Dodge, 261; Appleton, iv. 85; Grant, ii. 175; Sherman, ii. 96; Davis, 
ii. 563; Pollard's2>aw, 382; Zos< ft/wse, 580. (§§581-2) Draper, iii. 
307, 312, 343 ; Campaigns, x. 81 ; Greeley, ii. 639, 677 ; Ridpath, 526, 
2>0(f</e. 279, 282 ; Appleton, iv. 137, 158 ; (M^?^<, ii. 344, 357, 377 ; 5//e?-- 
waw, ii. 140 ; 6'e?i<. Mag., Aug. 1887 ; Davis, ii. 565 ; Pollards Davis, 
389. 395; ^. ZZ". Stephens, ii. 585; Zoii Caw«e, 581, 584. (§§58:^5) 
Draper, iii. 314, 337 ; Campaigtu, x. ; Greeley, ii. 689, 693 ; Ridpath, 
527; Z>0(f£re, 286, 291 ; Appleton, iv. 140, 151 ; (7?«/i^ ii. 369 ; Sherman, 
ii. 180, 195; CtfM<. i/fl<7.. July, Oct., 1887; Zfam, ii. 571; Pollard's 
Davis, 392, 400 ; Lost Cause, 582, 610, 613 ; R W. C Diary, ii. 338, 356, 
367. (§ 586) Draper, iii. 161, 189, 229, 244 ; Greeley, ii. 536 ; Ridpath, 
524; Appleton, iv. 51. 62; Lost Cause. 492. (§587) Draper, iii. 220; 
Greeley, ii. 649 ; Ridpath, 531 ; Headley's Farragut; Cliesuey's Military 
Biography; Davis, ii. 206 ; Lost Cause, 544. (§ 588) Draper, iii. 521 ; 
Greeley, ii. 708 ; Ridpath, 532 ; Dod^^re, 302 ; Grant, ii. 387 ; R. W. G. 
Diary, ii. 387.] 



{d) On ihe Sea. 

690. Confederate PriTateers. — Three of the Confederate 
privateers, the Alabama, the Florida, and the Creorgia, were 
destroyed during the year. The Alabama had challenged the 
United States steamer Kearsarge to a naval combat off Cher- 



1864] 1864, INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 237 

bourg in France, and after a battle of an hour the Alabama 
was sunk. 



(e) Internal Affairs. 

691. Weariness of the War. — Both sides were by this time 
thoroughly tired of war and warlike things. In the North 
it was simply a heartsickness of the long lists of dead and 
wounded in the daily newspapers, and of the mourning which 
the war had brought into countless households. In the 
South these things were made even worse by the money 
disorders, and the march of contending armies through the 
country, leaving fire, ruin, and desolation everywhere behind 
them. The people, and especially the women and children, 
felt these distresses far more than did the politicians who 
had brought on the war. They had begun to feel an un- 
easy consciousness that the end of the war was near; but they 
showed a wonderful patience in resisting until resistance was 
no longer possible, though they had none of the encourage- 
ment which the successes of this year brought to the people 
of the North. 

692. Presidential Election. — The Democrats nominated 
(1864) General McClellan (§517) for President, and George H. 
Pendleton, of Ohio, for Vice-President; while the Republicans 
nominated President Lincoln, with Andrew Johnson, of Ten- 
nessee, for Vice-President. The Democrats declared that the 
war had been a failure, and ought to cease ; but this declara- 
tion had hardly been made when Sherman's advance and the 
capture of Atlanta, the fight in Mobile Bay, and Sheridan's 
victories in the Shenandoah Valley revived the flagging spirit 
of the people, and Lincoln and Johnson were elected. 

693. Nevada. — Nevada was admitted to the Union (1864). 
Its wealth was in its silver-mines (§ 487). 

594. Tlie Prisoners. — The country was horrified by accounts 
of the sufferings endured by the Union prisoners shut up 
amid the misery of the Confederacy, particularly at Ander- 
sonville, a prison near Macon, in Georgia. Nothing could be 



238 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 

done, for exchange of prisoners had been stopped by a quarrel 

over the exchange of negro soldiers, whom the Confederates 

insisted on considering slaves. 

[Supplementary Reading. —(^ 590) Draper, iii. 200; Rulpnth, 533; Cent. 
Mag., April. 1886; Lost Cause, 550. (ij 591) Draper, iii. 480; A. H. 
Stephens, ii. 6^4; Pollard's Davis, '^76; Lost Cause, 6S0; E. W. C. Diary, 
ii. 230, 281, 288, 304, 314, 330, 349, 368, 393. (Ji 592) Draper, iii. 471; 
Wilson, \\\. 546; McPherson, 403; Johnston, 193; Shernutn, ii. 109; Gillet, 
334; R. W. C. Diary, ii. 285. (§ 593) Johnson, iii. 786. (J< 594) Draper, 
iii. 500; Appleton, iv. 684; Andreics, 301; Sherman, ii. 143; Abbott's 
Prison Life at the South; Spencer's Narrative of Andersonville; Sani- 
tary Qommx^sSon'^ Narrative of Sufferings of Prisoners; R. W. C. Diary, 
ii. 345; Davis, ii. 596; Lost Cause, 616.] 

V. Events of 1865. 
Conclusion of the War. 

695. Weakness of the South. — At the beginning of this year 
the South seemed to have no power of defence left south of 
the Savannah River. Union forces were moving from jilace 
to place, seizing Confederate arras and supplies, and scatter- 
ing any body of Confederate troops that attempted to make 
head against them. 

696. Sherman's March Northward. — When Sherman set out 
from Savannah for his final march toward Virginia his prin- 
cipal difficulty was from the winter rains and the swollen 
rivers and swamps. He moved directly north to Columbia, 
and thence northeast to Fayetteville, meeting little open re- 
sistance. As he went, the Confederate garrisons in Charles- 
ton and other coast towns were forced to leave their positions 
and hurry northward ahead of him; and thus the whole At- 
lantic coast fell into Union hands. But these garrisons, with 
the fragments of the scattered Western armies, made up a 
considerable force, and the outcries of the Southern people 
had compelled Davis to call Johnston (§ 570) back to com- 
mand it. lie liad made an army of it. 

697. Sherman's Closing Battles. — As Sherman's advance 
came up toward Bentonvilleand Gold sboro, Johnston attacked 
him furiously, and checked his march for the moment. But 



1865] 



EVENTS OF 1865. 



239 



Sherman drove Johnston back, and reached Goldsboro. Here 
he was joined by fresh troops from Wihnington, and halted 
for a time. He had no desire to jiush Johnston so far Xorth 
as to force him into joining Lee, bnt preferred to wait until 
Grant should begin his attack on Lee. 




698. Hatcher's Run — It has already been said that Grant's 
general plan was to push his lines farther to the southwest 
around Petersburgh, so that, while he had men enough to 
keep his own line strong, Lee should be forced to lengthen 
and weaken his line (§ 576). Just as Sherman was starting 
from Savannah, Grant made another movement to the south- 
west, reaching a little stream called Hatcher's Run, and hold- 
ing his ground. He then waited for Sheridan, who, with 
10,000 picked cavalry, moved eastward from the Shenandoah 
Valley, along the northern defences of Richmond, destroying 
the canal, railroad, and bridges from Lynchburgh to Rich- 
mond as he came. 

599. Five Forks.— Sheridan had been known principally as 
a cavalry officer, but was now to gain new reputation in the 
fighting which ended the war. He reached Petersburgh 
while Sherman was at Goldsboro. Grant put him in com- 
jnand of the force at Hatcher's Run, and he at once pushed 



240 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



[1865 



on beyond that point to Fivo Forks, and held that position in 
spite of Lee's furious attacks. This decided the fate of Lee 
and of the Confederacy. 

600. Fall of Petersburg!! and Richmond. — Lee lengthened 
his line again to meet this new danger; but it was now so 




Union Forces — — » 



I Confederatt > ^ 

SCALE OF MILES 



r 



long that his army could no longer guard it. Grant at once 
advanced his whole line, and it broke over Lee's intrench- 
ments. Lee retreated westward during tlie night, and Peters- 
burgh and Richmond were entered by the Union army. Davis 
and the Confederate autliorities escaped by railroad to North 
Carolina.* 



* Davis was captured in Georgia the next month, and was imprisoned in Fort- 
ress Monroe for two years, but was then released without trial. The United States 
put no one to death for treason. 



1865] MILITARY SUMMARY. 241 

601. Surrender of Lee. — Lee retreated westward, between 
the Appomattox and James rivers, toward Lyncliburgli, from 
which point he meant to make his way into North Carolina 
and Join Johnston. Grant's army was in hot pursuit ; Sheri- 
dan succeeded in passing Lee and heading him off from 
Lynchburgh; and Lee surrendered the remnants of his army 
at a little place called Appomattox Court-Houae. Grant gave 
him the most generous terms, and treated his men with the 
greatest kindness. 

602. General Surrender. — Sherman at once pushed forward 
to Ealeigh, and here Johnston surrendered to him. The 
remnants of othsr Confederate armies surrendered to the 
nearest Union force in like manner. The war was over, and 
the soldiers of the Confederacy went quietly back to their 
desolated homes, there to begin a new struggle against pov- 
erty. 

603. The Grand Review.— The victorious armies of Grant 
and Sherman were marched to Washington, and there passed 
for two days in review before their commanders and the offi- 
cers of the government. The disbanding of the army then 
began (§ 617). The regiments were given similar triumphal 
receptions on their arrival in their own States, and the com- 
panies on their arrival at their towns. The "volunteers" 
had now become "veterans"; and they still maintain an as- 
sociation under the name of the " Grand Army of the Re- 
public." 

Military Summary of the War, 

604. General Course of the War. — The war seems to fall 
naturally into two parts. For the first two years the Federal 
Government was busied in fixing its encircling lines and in 
winning territory piecemeal from the Confederacy. For the 
last two years its energies were bent on seeking and defeat- 
ing the principal Confederate armies. The turning-point of 
the war was in July, 1863 (§ 561); and the leading Union gen- 
erals at the end were not those who had led at the beginning. 



242 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 

606. Events of 1861(§ 508).— The principal battles of 1861 
were those of Bull Run and Wilson's Creek, in both of which 
the Union forces were defeated. But the Union armies had 
seized and held a vast extent of doubtful territory, so that 
the Confederacy was much smaller than had been expected ; 
and operations on the Atlantic coast had been fairly begun at 
Port Royal. 

606. 'Events of 1862 (§ 523).— Two attempts were made dur- 
ing the summer, by Bragg in the West and by Lee in the East, 
to break through the encircling line; and both were defeated. 
The great battles of 1862 in the East were the Seven Days' 
Battles, Antietam, and Fredericksburgh; and of these the 
only decided Union success was at Antietam. The Union 
victories of the year were mainly in the West — Fort Donel- 
son, Pittsburgh Landing, New Orleans, and Murfreesboro. 
The result of the year's work was the winning of a great 
amount of territory in the West, but the Confederate armies 
were still as strong and as confident as ever. 

607. Events of 1863 (§ 552).— In the East the principal 
battles of 1863 were Chancellorsville, a Confederate victory, 
and -Gettysburgh, a Union victory, which defeated the last 
great attempt of Lee to break through the encircling line. 
In the West, a Confederate army was captured at Vicksburgh, 
the Mississippi was opened, and the Confederacy was divided. 
The Confederate victory of Chickamauga was followed by the 
Union victories of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. 
The advantages of the year's operations in the West were 
evidently with the Union forces, and the Confederate armiec 
in that section for the first time began to show a falling off in 
strength and confidence. 

608. Events of 1864 (§ 571).— The great battles of 1864 in 
the East Avere the Wilde/ness battles and Cold Harbor, fol- 
lowed by the siege of Petersburgh, which lasted until the end 
of the war. While it was going on Sherman captured Atlanta; 
the Confederacy lost its last harbors; its Western army was 
blotted out at Nashville; and Sherman, with hardly an enemy 



1865] MILITARY SUMMARY. 243 

before him, had reached Savannah on his way northward to 
crush Lee. 

609. Eyents of 1865 (§ 596). — Sherman's march northward 
from Savannah swept up before it all the available forces of 
the Confederacy into a great trap, from which there was no 
escape. But Sherman took care not to push fast or far enough 
to drive Johnston and Lee close together. The operations of 
the two Union generals were so timed as to prevent the scat- 
tered Confederate forces from uniting into one army. One 
by one they were driven to surrender; and the war Avas over. 

610. Cost of the War.— Outside of the half million dead, 
and the hosts of wounded and crippled men, on both sides, 
the cost of the war is beyond calculation. Enormous amounts 
were raised by taxation and spent on the war; a debt of nearly 
$3,000,000,000 was incurred, to be paid in coming years; pen- 
sions were paid to wounded soldiers and to the relatives of the 
dead, with far greater liberality than any other nation has 
ever shown; and there was besides a terrible destruction of 
private property by the contending armies, and by war ves- 
sels. 

611. Object of the War. — The national people did not spend 
this amount of blood and money in order to show which sec- 
tion was the stronger, for every one knew beforehand that 
the North was the stronger. Nor was it the object of the 
war to show which had the braver men: the soldiers on both 
sides came out of the war with an equal respect for each 
other's bravery. It was not to satisfy any hatred of the North 
against the South, for there was no such thing. It was not 
to abolish slavery, though slavery was abolished as a part of 
the war. The object of the war was to keep the nation one, 
to prevent any future attempts to secede, and to see to it that 
there should not be two nations in place of one, waging wars 
with one another and taxing men, women, and children to 
carry them on. This was the object for which the Union men 
fought, and, when necessary, died — to secure perpetual peace 
and a united nation to their children and their children's 
children forever, 



244 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 



Death of President Lincoln. 

(>12. Lincoln's Work. — In the outburst of public rejoicings, 
the meetings and processions which followed Lee's surrender, 
the manner in which the character and work of President 
Lincoln were sj^oken of showed that people had come to know 
him better than they had done four years before (§ 508). The 
tall, lean, self-educated Illinois lawyer, who had a funny story 
ready to illustrate everything he did, was at last recognized 
as a wise, prudent, and great-hearted leader of men. In all 
the ups and downs of the war he had not lost his temper or 
his courage, and he had always done the sensible thing at the 
fit time. Even tiie Southern peoj^le, who had hated him, had 
come to see that he hud no liatred for them. His Gettysburgh 
Address had been a wonderful statement of the Union feel- 
ing; and now it seemed that he was just the one to calm 
the passions of the war, and to be the leader of a reunited 
people in the spirit of his second Inaugural Address: "With 
malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the 
right as God gives us to see the right." 

613. Assassination of the President. — Lincoln had not 
seemed to know what fear meant, and had always refused 
to have a guard about him; and it was not a difficult mat- 
ter for a murderer to reach him. One of his few pleasures, 
when tired out, was to attend the theatre. One evening, the 
President was sitting in a box in the theatre, when a man 
named John Wilkes Booth, half-crazed by anger at the fall of 
the Confederacy, and by a desire to be talked about, shot him 
through the head fro)n behind, so that he died the next day. 
Booth was chased into lower Maryland, and killed in a barn 
in which he had hidden himself. Some associates in his plot 
had attempted to kill ot'her officers of the government, but 
had failed. The President was buried at his home in Spring- 
field, Illinois. 

614. President Johnson. — Andrew Johnson, the Vice- 
President, beca-iae President at Lincoln's death. As Liu- 



1866] CmtONOLOQIGAL SUMMARY. 245 

coin had served but little more than a month of his second 
four years, his second term will be considered Johnson's 
administration. 

615. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of Lin- 
coln's administration, including the war for the Union, are as 
follows : 

(U., Union victory; C , Confederate victoiy; Ind., indecisive.) 

1861-65: Lincoln's term § 508 

1861: Fort Sumter, S. C, evacuated, April 13 (C.) 509 

Volunteers called for by the President, April 15 510 

First bloodshed at Baltimore, April 19 510 

Secession of four Border States, May and June 513 

Meeting of Congress, July 4 515 

Battle of Rich Mountain, W. Va., July 11 (U.) 517 

Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21 (C.) 516 

Battle of Wilson's Creek, Mo., August 10 (C.) 519 

Capture of Fort Hatteras, N. C, August 39 (U.) 511 

Capture of Port Royal, S. C, Nov. 7 (U.) 511 

Treat affair, Noventber 8 532 

1863: Battle of Mill Spring, Ky., January 19 (U.) 523 

Capture of Fort Henry, Tenn., Feb. 6 (U.) 523 

Capture of Roanoke Island, N. C, Feb. 8 (U.) 533 

Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., March 5-8 (U.) 529 

Battle of Monitor and Merrimac, March 9 (U.) 531 

Battle of Pittsburgh Landing or Shiloh, Tenn., April 

6-7 (U.) 534 

Capture of Island Number Ten, April 7 (U.) 530 

Capture of New Orleans, La., April 25 (U.) 534 

Capture of Yorktown, Va., May 4 (U.) 538 

Capture of Corinth, Miss., May 30 (U.) 525 

Battle of Fair Oaks, Va. , May 31 (U.) 540 

Jackson's raid on Banks, Va., June (C.) 542 

Seven Days' battles, Va., June 25-July 1 (Ind.) 543 

Pope's campaign, Va., August (C.) 544 

Second battle of Bull Run, Va., Aug. 30 (C.) 544 

Capture of Harper's Ferry, W. Va., Sept. 15 (C.) 545 

Battle of Antietam, Md.. September 17 (U.) 546 

Bragg's invasion of Kentucky, September 526 

Battle of Perry ville, Ky., October 8 (Ind.) 526 

Battle of Fredericksburgh, Va., Dec. 13 (C.) 547 

First attempt on Vicksburgb, Miss., Dec. 29 (C.) 528 

Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., Dec. 31- Jan. 2 (U.) 537 

1863: Emancipation Proclamation, January 1 549 

Draft Act passed, March 3 567 

Grant's campaign before Vicksburgh, Miss., May 1-17 

(U.) 558 

Battle of Chancellorsville. Va. , May 2-3 (C.) . . 552 

Admission of West Virginia, June 20 568 

Lee's second invasion of the North, June 553 



246 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 

1863: Battle of Gettysburgb, Pu., July 1-3 (U.) § 554 

Capture of Vi'cksbuigh, Miss., July 4 (U.) 558 

Capture of Port Hudson. La.. July 9 (U.) 558 

Draft riots, New York City, July 13-16 567 

Battle of ChickamaugM,;Ga., Sept. 19-20 (C.) 559 

Siege of Cliattauooga, Teuu., Oct. aud Nov 559 

Battle of Lookout Mouutaiu, Tenn., Nov. 24-25 (U.). . . 560 

1864: Grant made Lieutenant-General, jMarcb 3 572 

Red River expedition, La., April (C.) 586 

Battles of tbe Wilderness, Va., May 5-7 (Ind .) 573 

Battles at Spottsylvania Court-bouse. Va. , JVIay 8-1'^ (Ind.) 573 

Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14-15 (U ) 578 

Battle of Dallas. Ga., May 2.5-28 (U.) 578 

Battle of Cold Harbor. Va., June 3 (C) 574 

Siege of Petersburgb, Va., begun, June 576 

Battle of Keurmrge and Alabama, June 19 (U.) 590 

Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga., June 27 (U.) 578 

Battles before Atlanta. Ga., July 20-28 (U ) 580 

Battle of Mobile Bay. Ala., August 5 (U.) 587 

Capture of Atlanta, Ga., September 2 (U.) 580 

Battle of Wincbester. Va., September 19 (U.) 577 

Battle of Cedar Creek. Va., October 19 (U.) 577 

Admi-ssion of Nevada, October 31 593 

Sbernian's marcb to tbe sea, Nov. and Dec 584 

Battle of Franklin, Tenn. , November 30 (U.) 582 

Capture of Fort McAllister, Ga., Dec. 13 (U.) 585 

Battle of Nasbville, Tenn., Dec. 15-16 (U.) 582 

Capture of Savannab, Ga.. Dec. 21 (U.) 585 

1865: Capture of Fort Fisber, N. C, Jan. 15 (U.^ 588 

Sbermau's marcb norlbward, Feb. and March 596 

Capture of Columbia, S. C. , February 17 (U. ) 596 

Capture of Charleston, S. C. Feb. 18 (U.) 596 

Capture of Wilmington, N. C, Feb. 21 (U.) 588 

Battle of Goldsboro, N. C, March 19 (U.) 597 

Sheridan's raid, Marcb 599 

Battle of Five Forks, Va. . April 1 (U.) 599 

Capture of Petersburgb, Va., April 2 (U.) • 600 

Capture of Richmond, Va., April 3 (U.) 600 

Surrender of Lee, April 9 601 

Assassination of Lincoln. April 14 613 

Surrender of Johnston, April 26 602 

General surrender, April and May 602 

[Supplementary Reading.— (§ 595) Pollard's Davis, 477; Lost Cause, 
743; K W. C. Diary, ii. 438, 451. (^ 596) Draper, iii. 542; Greeley, ii. 
Q9Q; Eidpatli, 5-28; Dodge, '602; Appleton, y. 41 \ Sher7nan,u.268; Grant, 
ii. 401; Cent. Mag., Oct , 1887; Davis ii. 625; I^st Cause, 662. (§ 597) 
Draper, iii. 555; Greeley, ii. 706; Sherman, ii. 299; Grant, ii. 416; 
Appleton, V. 49; Atlantic, Sept., 1882; Davin, ii. 631; /. E. Johnston, 
371; Lost Cause, 675. (^g 598-9) Draper, iii. 561, 566; Greeley, ii 726; 
Siointon, 581, 591; Dodge, 210; Appleton, v. 312; Campaigns, xii. 312, 
316, 322, 342; Grant, ii. 436; Pollard's Davis, 486; Lost Cause, 687. 
(§§ 600-602) Draper, iii. 573, 580, 603; Greeley, ii. 735, 740, 751; Cam- 



1865] 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 247 



paigns, xii. 363, 373, 393; Ridpath, 538; Appleton, v. 60, 64. 66; Grant, 
ii. 446. 454, 464, 478, 515; Sherman, ii. 343; Davis, ii. 654. 700; Vo\- 
\&vdi's Davis, 487, 509, 515; A. H. Stephens, ii. 6-37, 803; J. E. Johnston, 
402; Lost Cause, 693, 703, 715. (§ 603) Grant, ii. 534; Sherman, ii. 376; 
Appleton, V. 74. (§ 610) Draper, iii. 646; Campaigns, xiii. 67; Greeley, 
ii. 759. (§ 612) Authorities under § 508; Lowell's Among my Books; 
Cent. Mag., Oct., 1885; Sherman, ii. 328. {§ 613) Draper, iii. 626; Rid- 
path, 542; Wilson, iii. 579: Greeley, ii. 747; Appleton, v. 474.] 



CHAPTER VIII. 
RECONSTRUCTION: 1865-77. 

(1) Johnson's Administration. 

616. The New President. — Andrew Johnson, elected Vice- 
President with Lincoln, became President at Lincoln's death 
(§ 614). He was from Tennessee, a '' poor white," who had 
worked his way upward until he had been sent to Congress, 
had become Governor of his State, and was then sent to the 
United States Senate. He was an ontspoken Union man, 
who held to the Union even after his State seceded; and, 
although he had always been a Democrat, the Eepublicans 
nominated him in 1864 in order to get the votes of those 
Democrats who supported the war. In this tliey were only 
repeating the mistake of Tyler's case (§ 421). Johnson wished 
to punish the rich and influential Southern leaders; but he 
cared little about the negroes who had been set free by the 
war. The Eepublicans were determined to protect the freed- 
men, even if they had to punish the seceding States in order 
to do it; while Johnson was determined that States should 
not be punished. Johnson was a passionate man, and hasty 
of speech; and he soon managed to bring about a quarrel with 
Congress, which lasted throughout his term of office. His 
term had scarcely begun before every one saw what a terrible 
misfortune it had been to lose the wise, kindly, lai-ge-hearted 
and large-minded Lincoln when the country needed him so 
much. 

248 



1865] JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 249 

617. Disbanding the Army. — Many persons had thought 
that it would be very dangerous to break up the armies at 
the end of the war; that the million of soldiers would not 
find work, but would join in lawless companies for robbery. 
Nothing of the kind followed. The men, except about 
50,000, who were retained as a standing army, were paid off 
and sent home at the rate of 300,000 a month. The old sol- 
diers turned out to be better lawyers, editors, managers, and 
workmen than they had been before the war through the 
habits of prompt obedience learned in the army. 

618. The Southern State GoTernments. — When Johnson be- 
came President the Union cavalry forces were ranging through 
the South, capturing governors and other leading men, and 
sending them to forts for safe-keeping. They were released 
after short imprisonments; but at the time no one was sure 
that the Confederate leaders would not all be hanged or shot 
for treason. Every Southern man who could have been of ser- 
vice in government was only anxious to keep out of the way; 
and the Southern State governments were broken up. The 
first business was to get some form of government that would 
keep order. 

619. The President's Plan — In each State the President 
appointed temporary governors, Avho called conventions 
elected by the white voters. These conventions repealed 
the ordinances of secession (§ 501), promised never to pay 
the debt incurred in support of the Confederacy, and ratified 
the Thirteenth Amendment, They then formed State gov- 
ernments. 

620. The Thirteenth Amendment. — The Emancipation Proc- 
lamation (§ 549) had only freed the slaves, and would not 
have prevented a new establishment of slavery. It had been 
necessary for Congress to propose the Thirteenth Amendment 
to the Constitution, forever forbidding slavery, and for three 
fourths of the States to ratify it (§ 747). It thus became a 
part of the Constitution (1865). 

621. The Freedmen. — The new Southern State govern- 
ments, believing that the freedmen, or freed negroes, would 



250 BECONSTRUCTION. [1866 

not work willingly, began to pass laws to make them work. 
This looked like setting up slavery again under another name; 
and, when Congress met, its Republican members voted not 
to admit the members whom the Southern States had elected. 
As long as these Southern members were kept out, the Repub- 
licans had a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Congress 
— suflficient to pass any law they pleased over the President's 
veto (§ 741). 

622. Readmission of Tennessee. — Tennessee had reorganized 
its State government in such a manner that the freedmen 
seemed secure; and Congress readmitted the State to repre- 
sentation (1866). 

623. Quarrel of the President and Congress. — The Presi- 
dent was very angry, partly that States should be denied their 
right to be represented in Congress, and partly that Congress 
should have such a majority opposed to him. He was suj)- 
ported by the Northern Democrats and by the Southern peo- 
ple, who did not count for much, however, so long as their 
representatives were not admitted to Congress. As soon as 
the elections showed that the Republicans were to have the 
same two-thirds majority in the next Congress, they went on 
to pass, over the President's veto, the Reconstruction Act 
(1867), containing their plan of forming new governments in 
the Southern States. 

624. The Reconslrnction Acts. — The Reconstruction Acts 
provided that the States which had seceded, except Tennessee 
(§ 622), should not govern tliemselves for the present, but 
should be put under military governors, who were to call con- 
ventions to form new governments. The freedmen, who had 
never voted before, were to have the right to vote for mem- 
bers of these conventions; but the leading Confederates, who 
had always been influential men in their States, were forbid- 
den to do so. If the nfew governments should permit freed- 
men to vote, and should ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, 
which denied to the leading Confederates the power to hold 
office. Congress would admit their Senators and Representar 
tives. 



1868] JOHNSOJ^'S ADMINISTRATION. 251 

626. Reconstruction. — For more than a year the work of 
"reconstruction" went on, and then (1868) six States were 
readmitted: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North 
Carolina, and South Carolina. The ratifications of theee 
States made the Fourteenth Amendment * a part of the Con- 
stitution. But these State governments were different from 
what had been known at the South. They were largely con- 
trolled by the freedmen, who had been slaves but two or three 
years before, but were now in political affairs equal or superior 
to their former masters; the whites, in addition to the bitter- 
ness of defeat in the war, now had to submit to be governed 
by their former slaves. It was hoped at the North that the 
freedmen wonld be made secure by having the right to vote 
for representatives in their State governments: the unhappy 
result was that the whites disobeyed the new governments 
at every opportunity, and were continually at work to get 
control of them, in ordei- to keep the freedmen out. Four 
States, Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia, refused to 
be "reconstructed," and were not readmitted until two years 
later (§ 635). 

626. The Tenure-of-Olfiee Act. — Among the many Acts of 
Congress passed over the President's veto was the Tenure-of- 
Office Act, forbidding the President to remove the higher 
classes of office-holders without the consent of the Senate 
(1867). The President, believing that the Constitution gave 
Congress no power to pass such an Act, determined to dis- 
obey it. He removed Stanton, the Secretary of War, and, 
when the Senate refused to consent to the removal, Johnson 
paid no attention to the refusal, and ordered Stanton's suc- 
cessor to take possession of the office. 

627. Impeachment. — The President was impeached (§ 732) 
at once; but, after a long and angry trial, the Senators who 
voted to convict him were not two thirds of the whole num- 
ber, and he was acquitted. 

628. Presidential Election (1868).— The Presidential elec- 
tion of 1868 turned on Eeconstructiou, as Congress had man- 

* It -will be found in the Appendix. 



252 RECONSTRUCTION. [18G8 

aged it. Tlie Republicans supported it, and nominated Gen- 
eral Grant, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana. Tlie Democrats 
opposed it, and nominated Horatio Seymour, of New York, 
and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. The Republicans were suc- 
cessful, and Grant and Colfax were elected. 

629. The Debt. — At the end of the war tne American 
jjeople had incurred a debt larger than most countiies had 
ever reached at that time. Other governments have debts 
now which are as large or larger, but they make no attempt 
to pay them. On the contrary, the American policy was to 
begin to pay tiie debt at once: before the armies were quite 
disbanded, $30,000,000 of the debt had been paid; taxes were 
kept up; and whatever could be spared out of the large re- 
ceipts of the government went to help pay the debt (§ 679). 

630. Mexico. — Before the armies w'ere disbanded a strong 
force was moved to the Rio Grande, and demand was made 
that the French troops should leave Mexico at once (§ 570). 
The demand was agreed to by France; but Maximilian, re- 
fusing to leave with tlie French army, was captured by the 
Mexicans and shot, though tlie United States asked that his 
life should be spared. 

631. The Atlantic Telegraph. — The telegraph had not been 
in operation long before it Avas found that lines could be 
worked under water. This suggested the idea of a line from 
America to Europe, over the flat bed of the Atlantic Ocean 
between Ireland and Newfoundland. Such a line had been 
laid (1857), but failed to work long. It was now tried again, 
and proved a success (18G6). Other cables of the kind have 
since been laid, so that it is now hardly possible that any 
accident should entirely break off telegraphic communication 
between the United States and Europe. 

632. Alaska. — A treaty was made with Russia for the pur- 
chase of Alaska (1867). ' This is the last addition to the ter- 
ritory of the United States (§ 452). 

633. Nebraska. — Nebraska, a part of the Louisiana pur- 
chase (§§ 301, 476), was admitted as a State (1867), with the 
provision that it should allow negroes to vote. 



1869] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 253 

[Supplementary Reading. — (%&\Qi) Ridpath, 544; Oillet,2i'6Z; Johnson, 
ii. 1429. (i^ ^511) Appleton, v. 18; Sherman, ii. 413. (§ <il8^ A. H. 
Stephens, ii. 635, 659; Cleveland's Stephens, 201. (§ 619) Ridpath. 547; 
Appleton, V. 802; Oilman, 545; Johnston, 197; Andrews, 47, 140, 243; 
^. Zf. Stephens, ii. 636; G^z'Wei, 304. (8 620) Wilson, iii. 434; Johnston, 
195. (,^ 621) Mfco/i, iii. 455, 472, 599; McPherson's Rec, 29; Johnston, 
198; (?««e<, 309. (§ 622i Appleton, vi. 223; McPherson's Rec, 105, 152. 
(§ 623) Ridpath. 548; McPherson's Rec. 58, 134: Johnston, 200. (§ 624) 
WifeoAi, iii. 647; Appleton, vii. 204, 242; McPherson's Rec, 116, 178; 
Johnston, 202; J., if. Stephens, ii. 641, 643; i?«»is, ii. 730; (?«7^ei;, 318, 
380. (§ 625) Ridpath, 550; McPherson's Rec , 337; Z>rtm, ii. 743; Pike, 
12; (?»■«< 320. (§ 626) Appleton, vi. 241; McPherson's Rec, 173; <SAer- 
waTi. ii. 420: Johnston, 203; G'^Yfci:, 378. (§ 627) Ridpath, 550; M^^ow, 
iii. 733; McPherson's Rec, 264; Appleton, viil. 352,648,743; Scbucker's 
Chase, 547; Impeachment Trial of Andrew Johnson; Johnston, 205; 
(?z7K 337, 362. (§ 628) jR/(?yO«i/;, 551; Wilson, \\\. 734; McPherson's 
Rec, 499; Appleton, 744; Johnston, 206, 295; Spofford. Index under 
Elections. (§ 629) Appleton, vi. 293; Laughlin, 283. (^ 630) Ridpath, 
545; McPherson's Rec, 146; Sherman, ii. 414. (§ 631)' Ridpath, 545; 
Oilman, 548; .4j9^?eio«, vi. 719. (§632) Ridpath, 547; Oilman, 551; 
Appleton, vii. 36; Johnson, i. 79. (§ 633) Appleton, vii. 170, 532; Jo/m- 
«(?», iii. 751.] 



(2) Grant's Administrations: 1869-77. 

634. The New President. — General Ulysses S. Grant, who 
left his place as head of the army to become President in 
1869, was then nearly fifty years old, and in the prime and 
vigor of life. As a general, liis strong point had been his de- 
termination, and it was on this that the country relied in mak- 
ing him President. It wanted as President a man who would 
hold everything that could be lield of what had been secured 
by the war, in the supremacy of the national authority and 
in the rights of the freedmen ; and it is not easy to name 
any one who would have done this woi'k better than Grant. 

635. Completion of Reconstrnction. — Eeconstruction was 
completed (1870) by the admission of Georgia, Mississippi, 
Texas, and Virginia (§ 625), and all the States were repre- 
sented in Congress again for the first time since 1860. 

636. The Fifteenth Amendment— The Fifteenth Amend- 
ment was ratified by three fourths of the States^, and became 



254 RECONSTRUCTION. [1870 

a part of the Constitutioti (1870). It forbade the United 
States, or any State, to prevent any person from voting be- 
cause of his " race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 
Negro suffrage was thus made the law of the land. 

637. Disorders in the South. — All through this period 
the country was worried by continual disorders in the recon- 
structed States. The freednien were timid and ignorant, 
voted together, and elected legislatures which made bad laws, 
stole the public moneys, and laid heavy taxes on property. 
The property belonged to the whites, who were determined to 
get control of the State governments. At first they hired or 
frightened negroes into refusing to vote. In States where this 
was not successful, leading freedmen were whipped or killed, 
in order to frighten the others; and the State government 
found itself resisted at every turn. AVhen a State government 
is thus resisted the usual course is to call out the well-dis- 
posed part of the people to suppress the resistance; but the 
freedmen had been made timid by the system of slavery, and 
they were not ready to support their State governments by 
force of arms. 

638. The Ku-Klux Klan. — Very many of these disorders 
were committed by disguised persons belonging to a secret 
society called the Ku-Klux Klan, extending tlirough most 
of the Southern States. Acts of Congress were passed to 
make its offences crimes, and it finally disappeared. 

639. Federal Support. — When a State government cannot 
suppress resistance, the Constitution directs the Federal Gov- 
ernment to support it (§ 740). President Grant sent Federal 
troops to help those States which asked for such help, and 
thus kept their governments in existence. Nevertheless, in all 
but three States, South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, the 
whites succeeded in carrying the elections and getting control 
of the State governments: the Federal troops were then no 
longer called for. Even in the three States named they 
claimed to have carried the elections, but the Federal troops 
prevented them from turning out the reconstructed govern- 
ipeuts. 



1876] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 255 

640. Failure of Reconstruction. — All this difficulty of 
bringing two sucli different races to live together on equal 
terms is still unsettled (§ 124). So far as reconstruction 
aimed to make the freedmen voters, it was therefore a failure 
by the end of Grant's terms. It was a success, however, in 
other respects. It has given the negro every other i-ight ex- 
cept that of voting; and even this right is being slowly but 
surely obtained as the negro shows himself worthy of it. 

641. The Liberal Republicans. — Many of the Republicans 
were not satisfied that Federal troops should be used so con- 
stantly to support the reconstructed governments: they 
tliought that if these governments were not able to sustain 
themselves, they were not fit to exist. Toward the end of 
Grant's first term these Republicans began to take the name 
of Liberal Republicans. 

642. Presidential Election (1872).— At the end of Grant's 
first term the Republicans renominated the President, with 
Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, for Vice-President, and ap- 
proved the President's use of Federal troops at the South. 
The Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley, of New 
York, and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, and the Democrats 
accepted these nominations as tlieir own. The Republicans 
were successful, and Grant and Wilson were elected.* 

643. Political Scandals. — Grant's second term was marked 
by the appearance of a number of political scandals, Indian 
frauds, frauds in the collection of the whiskey tax, and frauds 
in securing government support for the building of the Pacific 
Railroad (§ 651). No one ever really believed that the Presi- 
dent was implicated in them; but the Democrats used them 
as arguments against the party which had elected him. 

644. Presidential Election (1876). — The Democrats nomi- 
nated (1876) Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. 
Hendricks, of Indiana. The Republicans nominated Ruther- 
ford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New 
York. There seemed to be no great disputed principle be- 

* Greeley died soon after the election. His mind had been overthrown by the 
pxcitement of the struggle. 



256 RECONSTRUCTION. [1876 

tween the parties: one party wished to get in, and the other 
to stay in. "When the election by the people was over, it was 
found tluit, outside of Florida and Louisiana, each party had 
obtained about the same number of electors, and that these 
two deciding States were claimed by both parties. 

645. The Disputed Election. — Here w(!re multitudes of men 
on both sides very greatly excited; each party was certain 
that its candidates had been elected, and determined to put 
them into office; and that meant violence whose end no man 
could foresee. The trouble had evidently grown out of tlie 
state of things at the South. The reconstructed governments 
had been in the habit of forming "returning boards," em- 
powered to cast out the vote of any part of the State where 
violence had been used to keep voters away from the polls. 
In Florida and Louisiana the Democrats had a majority of 
the votes cast; but the returning boards, by throwing out the 
votes of parts of those States, made a Republican majority. 
To give the offices to Hayes and Wheeler, said the Democrats, 
would be a triumph of fraud: to give them to Tilden and 
Hendricks, said the Republicans, would be a triumph of 
violence. 

646. The Dispute in Congress. — Congress had for about 
fifty years claimed the right to decide disputes about electoral 
votes; but now the Republicans had a majority in the Senate, 
and the Democrats in the House of Representatives and the 
two could not agree on any decision. It seemed as though 
there was no help in Congress or anywhere else; and that at the 
end of Grant's term two Presidents would claim the office, 
and that civil war between their supporters would follow. 

647. The Electoral Commission. — The moderate men of 
both parties in Congress finally agreed in passing a special 
law to form an Electoral Commission, composed of five Sena- 
tors, five Representatives, and five judges of the Supreme 
Court. They were to decide all disputes as to electoral votes; 
and their decisions were to hold good, unless both Houses 
should unite to overrule them, and every one knew that the 
two Houses would not unite on anything. The disputed 



1876] GRANTS ADMINISTRATIONS. 257 

votes were decided by the Commission to be Republican, and 
Hayes and Wheeler were declared elected; but, as the deci- 
sions of the Commission were made by votes of eight Republi- 
cans to seven Democrats, the Democrats were as angry as ever. 

648. The End of the Reconstructed Grovernments. — Very few 
had a good word any longer for the reconstructed governments : 
even those who had maintained their right to cast their elec- 
toral votes as they did, were not anxious to see the country 
brought again into a position of such peril. Even before the 
new Administration came into office President Grant had 
withdrawn the Federal troops from the support of the re- 
maining reconstructed governments, and his action met with 
general approval. The whites at once turned out the old 
governments, and put their own in place of them without op- 
position. From that time all the Southern States have been 
controlled by the white voters, and all have been Democratic, 
forming what is often called "the solid South." 

[Supplementary Reading.— (§ 684) Appleton, xxv. 4'31; Ridpath, 552; 
Badeau's Grant; Coppee's Grant; Chesney's Military Biography; 
Gi&\i\,'% Personal Memoirs. (§ 635) McPherson's Rec, 572, 609; Apple- 
ton, X. 119, 148, 155, 162. (§= G'SQ) Appleton, x. 168; Wilson, iii. 661; 
McPherson's Rec, 397, 488, 545. {^^ Q'Sl) Ridpath, 559; Pike, 120; Cha7n- 
berlain, 7; Tourgee's A Fool's Ei'rand; Gibson, 315. (§ 638) Appleton, 
xi. 171,747; Gilman, ^58; Tourgee's Invisible Empire; Cent. Mag., July, 
1884; Ku-Klux Committee's Report, xii. 1159 (pictures of disguises). 
(§ 639) Appleton, xiii. 751; xiv. 798. {% Ml) Appleton, xii. 776; Trib. 
Aim., 1873, 33. (g 642) Ridpath, 558; Appletofi, xii. 779; Gilman, 560; 
Spofford, Index uuder Elections. (§ 643) Appleton, xiii. 213; xv. 665; 
Ridpath. 560; Poland Committee's Repm't; Report of Committee on Whis- 
key Frauds. (§ 644) Appleton, xvi. 782, 792; Gilman, 564; Spofford, 
Index under Elections. (§ 645) Appleton, xvii. 747; Chamberlain, 429- 
Trib. Aim., 18T7, 127; Gibson, 154. (§ 647) Appleton, xvii. 137, 164; 
Gilman, 565; Electoral Count, 3; lYib. Aim., 1877, 133; (Republican 
side) Electoi-al Count, 252, 955; Bundy's Garfield, 156; (Democratic side) 
Electoral Count, 322, 695; Spencer's Bayard, 270; Gibson, 298. (§ 648) 
Appleton, xvii. 455, 694, 747; Chamberlain, 472.] 

649. The Treaty of Washington.— One of the best features 
of Grant's administration was the manner in which Great 
Britain and the United States, after long wrangling as to 
whether the United States had been wrongly treated by Great 
Britain in the matter of the Confederate privateers (§ 569), 



258 RECONSTRUCTION. [1876 

and whether Great Britain should pay damages therefor, 
settled the dispute by the Treaty of Washington (1871), in 
which they agreed to leave this and several other questions to 
arbitrators, or umpires, to be selected by neutral nations. 

650. Decision of Disputed Questions. — In the case of the 
"Alabama Claims," for damages done to American commerce 
by Confederate privateers, the arbitrators found that Great 
Britain had been in the wrong, and that she should pay dam- 
ages (115,500,000). In the case of the Canadian fisheries the 
arbitrators found that the United States had been in the 
wrong, and should pay damages ($5,500,000). In a dispute 
as to the northwestern boundary (§ 423) the arbitrators de- 
cided in favor of the United States. 

651. The Pacific Railroad.— The Central Pacific Railroad, 
from Omaha to San Francisco, the first of the railways to the 
Pacific, was finished (1869). It had been begun during the 
heat of the Civil War, Congress assisting it by giving the 
company public lands and by promising to pay the interest on 
its bonds if it should be unable to do so. It has been one of 
the most important of the influences Avhich bind the country 
into one. 

652. Census of 1870. — The population of the country was 
nearly 39,000,000 in 1870, an increase of 7,000,000 in ten 
years (§ 486). At previous rates the increase should have 
been about 10,000,000; but the war, with its loss of life, de- 
crease of immigration, and general confusion, had made the 
difference. Most of the Southern States had liardly any 
increase. 

653. The Great Fires. — This period was marked by the 
burning of Chicago and the great forest-fires in Wisconsin 
(1871), and by the burning of Boston (1872). Most of the 
richer parts of the two cities were destroyed, leaving great 
stretches of ruins; and 'in Chicago 100,000 people were made 
homeless. The news of these disasters had hardly been tele- 
graphed when train-loads of })rovisions and supplies were 
started from all parts of the country to the place where they 
were needed. Rebuilding began at once; and Chicago and 



1876] GBANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 259 

Boston soon rose again from their ruins, finer cities than be- 
fore their misfortune. 

654. Colorado. — The thirty-eighth State (and the last up 
to 1889) admitted to the Union Avas Colorado (1876). It was 
formed partly from the Louisiana purchase (§ 301) and 
partly from the Mexican cession (§ 451). 

655. The Centennial Year. — The centennial, or hundredth 
anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, was cele- 
brated in 1876. As a part of the celebration, an Inter- 
national Exposition (§ 470) was held at Philadelphia from 
May until November. In its great buildings were collected 
specimens of the productions, manufactures, and arts of every 
country. It was visited by nearly ten million people, and 
served excellently as a general educator. 

656. The Panic of 1873. — Extravagant railroad building- 
brought on a financial panic (§ 408) in 1873, from the effects 
of which the country did not recover for more than six years. 
Many railroads had been built in parts of the country and 
were unable to pay interest on the expense of building them. 
As soon as those who had built them began to wish to sell, 
nobody cared to buy. Money became scarce, many great 
fortunes were lost, and there was general distress. 

657. Summary of this Period. — As in the case of Jefferson 
(§ 313), Grant's second term was as unhappy as the first had 
been successful. The wonderful prosperity of the country in 
his first term, the great sales of farm products in Europe, and 
the increase in railroad building were all apt to increase the 
feeling of confidence in their own strength and wisdom which 
the Civil War had given to the Northern people, and drew 
their attention away from the sullen anger of their conquered 
opponents. But we are all parts of one body, and an injury 
to one part is apt to be an injury to all. Before the second 
term was over, the whole country was in a turmoil, and in the 
profoundest suspense and anxiety over the possibility of 
another period of violence and open war. All this, however, 
was but the last great wave of the Civil War, showing that 
wars do not really cease when contending armies stop fight- 



260 RECONSTRUCTION. [1876 

iiig; and it was followed by the period of peace and abound- 
ing prosperity which falls under the next chapter. 

658. Chronological Summary.— The leading events of this 
period were as follows : 

1865-69 : Johnson's term of office §616 

1865 : Disbanding of the armies 617 

Southern State governments reorganized . 619 

Thirteenth Amendment ratified ... 620 

1866 : Tennessee readmitted 622 

Atlantic Cable laid 631 

1867 : Reconstruction Acts passed b}' Congress 624 

Tenure-of-Office Act passed by Congress 626 

Nebraska admitted " T 633 

Maximilian shot 630 

Alaska purchased 632 

1868 : Removal of Stanton 626 

Impeachment of the President 627 

Six States readmitted 625 

Fourteenth Amendment ratified 625 

1869-73 : Grant's first term 634 

1869 : Pacific Railroad completed 651 

1870 : Reconstruction completed 635 

Fifteenth Amendment ratified 636 

1871 : Ku-Klux disorders 638 

Burning of Chicago 653 

Treat}- of Washington 649 

1872 : Burning of Boston 653 

1873-77 : Grant's second teini 642 

1873 : Beginning of the Panic 656 

1876 : Centennial celebration 655 

Admission of Colorado 654 

Disputed Presidential election 645 

1877 ; Electoral Commission 647 

[Supplementary Reading. — (§649) Ridpdth, 555; Ajrpletoii, xxi. 253; 
Cu.shing's Tredty of Wanliinfiton; '\i^l'Al\\•A\\'i> Ahdxtina (Jlaims. (§650) 
Ridpath, 556, 557; Appleton, xii. 239. (§651) Bowles's Acr'o,ss the Con- 
tinent, 255; Ridpat/i, 553, 560; Appleton, ix. 16. (§653) Ridpath, 557. 
558; Appleton, xi. 394, 773, xii. 503; Goodspeed's Chicitgo Fire; Roe's 
Barriers Burned Away. (§654) Ridpath. 561; Aj>pleton, xvi. 118; John- 
son, i. 1033; Wharton's 7/<,vto7'.y of Denver. (§655) Ridpath, 563; Ap 
pleton, xvi. 194, 262; First Century of the Republic. {'^doG) Ridpath. 
560; Appleton, xiii. 283.] 



CHAPTER IX. 
RECENT DEVELOPMENT : 1877-88. 

(1) Hayes's Administration: 1877-81. 

659. Peace and Prosperity. — U'his history has to tell of 
no more wars or buttles. Prosperity came with peace. The 
panic of 1873 (§ 656) passed ofE gradually, as the growth of 
the country brought into use and profit the railroads which 
had been useless and unprofitable. The story is henceforth 
that of the daily labor of 50,000,000 people who were working 
busily, filling new regions like Dakota, and selling the prod- 
uce of their labor in enormous quantities to other nations. 
Under such circumstances the points of interest are mainly 
social and economic questions: that is, laws and other mat- 
ters affecting the work, wealth, and comfort of the people. 

660. The Census of 1880. — The population of the country 
in 1880 was 50,000,000, an increase of 11,000,000 since 1870 
(§ 652). The highest rates of increase were now in the 
Southern States. The census report showed that the United 
States had now become one of the wealthiest countries of the 
world (§710). 

661. Electricity. — This period was remarkable for the 
new and wonderful ways in which electricity was set to work 
for man. It had already been put to use in the telegraph 
(§426). Now the telephone was perfected: it has enabled 
men to converse when hundreds of miles apart, and has 
made work of every sort easier, quicker, and more effec- 
tive. The electric light was first brought into use at this 

261 



262 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1877 

time for lighting buildings and streets. The first promising 
attempts were made to use electricity as a power in driving 
ordinary machinery and locomotive engines. 

662. Railroad Strikes. — At the beginning of this admin- 
istration (1877) the first great railroad strikes took place. 
The railroads attempted to lower the wages of the men; most 
of the men refused to work for the new wages, and some of 
them refused to permit the trains to run. In some cases 
they resisted the troops which were protecting the railroads; 
and there were dangerous riots at Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. 
Louis, and other places. After nearly two weeks of general 
confusion, the riots were suppressed, and the trains began 
running regularly again. 

663. Tlie Fall in Silver. — Silver had been decreasing in 
value for some years all over the world, partly because of the 
enormous production of the silver mines of Nevada and other 
Pacific States and Territories. The value of gold and silver, 
like that of anything else, depends not only on the use that 
people have for it, but on the cost of getting it. If silver 
were as plentiful and as easy to get as iron, it would be worth 
no more than iron, and would buy no more corn or clothes 
than the same weight of iron. In Nevada the miners had 
found new and cheaper ways of getting the silver out of the 
ore; and the mines there were yearly sending out laiger 
quantities of silver. Its price, as compared with gold, was 
steadily falling. 

664. Demonetization of Silver. — If men who owe money 
have a choice of paying in gold dollars worth one hundred 
cents, or in silver dollars worth eighty-five cents, they will 
prefer to pay in silver. To prevent such operations, many 
countries had ''demonetized " silver, that is, had passed laws 
providing that debts sl\ould be paid in silver only by agree- 
ment of both parties. To prevent foreign countries from 
sending all their useless silver to the United States, Congress 
also demonetized silver (1873). 

665. Remonetization of Silver.— ]\Iany persons came to the 
conclusion that the law of 1873 was onlv intended to enrich 



1879] HATES- S ADMINISTRATION: 263 

bond-holders by paying the national debt in gold; and the 
popular excitement frightened both parties in Congress (1878) 
into remonetizing silver, that is, ordering that the silver 
dollar should be coined again, and should be received in pay- 
ment of all debts. 

066. Resumption. — Paper money, issued by the government 
or by national banks (§§ 550, 565), had been the only money 
in general use since 1862. It had been worth less, sometimes 
much less, than gold, partly because such large amounts of it 
had been issued, and partly because it had sometimes been 
doubted whether the government would be able to pay coin 
for it (§ 563). It was now decided that the government should 
resume specie payments, and on the appointed date (Jan. 1, 
1879) it was ready to give gold or silver for any of its notes. 
But as soon as this was certain, the notes became as valuable 
as coin, and the people found them more convenient than 
coin and used them instead of demanding coin for them ; so 
that Eesumption was really no more than an offer by the gov- 
ernment to give coin for its notes. 

667. Refunding-. — The more doubt there is as to the payment 
of a debt, the higher the rate of intei'est that must be paid for 
it. The United States had been paying a high rate of interest 
on its debt; but the people had resisted every temptation to 
ease themselves of the burden of the debt : they had taxed 
themselves heavily to pay it as rapidly as possible ; and it was 
now so certain that the debt would be paid that men who had 
money to lend were glad to lend it to the government at lower 
rates. As fast as possible, new bonds were sold at low inter- 
est, and the money was used to pay off the old bonds. This 
is the operation called "refunding," and it made a saving of 
$30,000,000 a year in interest. 

668. Chinese Immigration.— Many Chinese had settled in 
the Pacific States. They had been accustomed to live far more 
meanly than white laborers were used to do. They could there- 
fore work for lower wages than white laborers, who now had to 
bid for work at lower wages than they had been accustomed to. 
The consequence was that there were riots, attacks on the 



264 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1880 

Chinese, and a general liatred of them in California, and a 
treaty was made with China (1880), which allowed the United 
States to stop Chinese immigration for a time. 

669. Congress and the President. — The Democrats were in a 
majority in Congress, atid they wished to re])c'al certain laws 
which had been passed by former Republican Congresses. 
The repealing Acts were vetoed by the President, and the 
majority in Congress was not large enough to pass them over 
the veto (§ T41). The result was that there was a great deal 
of excitement, and very little was done. 

670. Presidential Election (1880).— In the Presidential elec- 
tion (1880) the Democrats nominated AVinfield S. Hancock, 
of New York, and William H. English, of Indiana ; and the 
Republicans nominated James A. Garfield, of Oliio, and 
Chester A. Arthur, of New York. The Republican candi- 
dates were elected. 

[Supplementary Reading.— (§ 660) CenmiH Reports o/'1880; Appleton, 
xxi. 848, xxii. 815. (§ 661) Johnson, iv. 1596; Appleton, xix. 335. (^ 662) 
Oilman, 567; Iladley, 128; Appleton, xvii. 423. (^^&d)Johnson, iv. 291; 
Laughlin, 310. (§§ 664-5) Langhlin, 310; Johnston, 239; Appleton, 
xviii. 138. (§ 666) Laughlin, 319, 32f); Appleton, xvii. 290, xix. 763. 
(§667) Appleton, xix. 757, xx. 257. (^668) Gilmau. a^^; Appleton, 
XX. 105; Seward's Chinese Immigration. {^ 669) Johnston, 242; Apple- 
ton, xix. 226, XX. 155. (§670) Gilman, 570; Roberts's i\'(?/r York, 709; 
Johnston, 244; Appleton, xx. 693; 2'rib. Abn., 1881, 19; Spofford, Index 
uuder Eleetions.'\ 



(2) Garfield's and Authur's Administrations, 1881-5. 

671. Assassination of the President. — Since Jackson's time 
(§ 392) every President had been expected to inake appoint- 
ments for the good of the party — to appoint such men as 
would spend part of their time in working for the i^arty's suc- 
cess at the next election'. It was always the case that many 
were disappointed in their expectation of offices, and that 
there ^vas much bitterness of feeling. Such cases were un- 
usually numerous at the beginning of Garfield's term of office; 
and finally Guiteau [^/tVo], a disappointed villain who had 



1882] GARFIELD'S AND ARTHURS ADMINISTRATIONS. 265 

been refused an office, sliot and mortally wounded the Presi- 
dent at a railroad depot in Washington. After lingering 
nearly three months, President Garfield died at Elberon, near 
Long Branch, on the New Jersey coast, to which place he had 
been removed from Washington. Vice-President Arthur be- 
came President at Garfield's death. 

672. Civil Service Reform. — Garfield's death, caused mainly 
by the scramble for offices, brought about a clearer view of the 
evils of the old system of appointment. The people began 
to urge Congress to make some reform in the civil service, so 
that appointments should depend in some way on the merit 
of the applicant, not on his usefulness to his party ; and 
Congress passed the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), per- 
mitting the President to appoint examiners, and to make 
appointments on their recommendation. This new system 
applied at first to but a small part of the offices; it has been 
extended to a larger number by Presidents Arthur and Cleve- 
land, who have found it a relief from needless woi'k and an- 
noyance. Some of the States and cities have begun to imitate 
the system in order to cure similar evils. 

073. The Mormons. — A still more severe act was passed by 
Congress (1882) for the purpose of compelling the Mormons 
(§ 484) to give up their system of polygamy, which had be- 
come disgraceful and dangerous to the United States. It is 
not yet certain that they will obey the law ; and it will not be 
safe to admit Utah as a State until they do so, for the Legis- 
lature of a State can make what laws it pleases about marriage. 
This object has not yet been reached. 

674. General Prosperity. — The country had now fully re- 
covered from the panic of 1873 (§ 656). Work was plenty for 
everybody, and agriculture, trade, and manufactures were 
flourishing. This growth was even more noticeable at the 
South than elsewhere. That section had found free labor 
more profitable than slave labor (§ 493). Its crops were very 
large; railroads were building in every direction ; rich iron- 
mines were opening ; and manufactures were appearing as 
they had never done while the workmen were slaves. Success- 



S66 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1883 

fill Expositions at Atlanta (1881) and New Orleans (1884-85) 
showed the great resources of the "New^ South'" and its won- 
derful advances since the Civil War. 

676. The Race Question. — The great question left by slavery 
and reconstruction (§ 624), the most difficult in some respects 
that any people has ever met, is still unsettled. Two differ- 
ent races inhabit the same territory ; and politics, church 
affairs, and all the relations of human life are affected by the 
question of the terms on which these two races are to live to- 
gether. Every year the number of negroes in the South who 
are raising themselves to wealth, intelligence, respect, and in- 
fluence is increasing ; and it is becoming more difficult to 
make such men ride in " negro cars," or to refuse them ad- 
mission to hotels, theatres, churches, and schools, or to keeji 
them from voting. It is becoming evident that it will depend 
mainly on the negroes themselves hoiv this race question in the 
South Avill be decided, but itilien no man can say. 

676. The National Debt.— About half of the debt had now 
been paid. Most of the remainder was not due for more than 
twenty years, the government having put off payment, as jiart 
of the plan of '"refunding" (§ 667); and those to whom it 
was due were very unwilling to be paid, as they were persons 
who preferred to leave their money with the government, even 
at low interest, since its security was perfect. It was therefore 
becoming more difficult for the government to use its great 
revenue in a further decrease of the debt, even by offering 
to pay its creditors their money before it was due. And yet 
the revenue was pouring in more rapidly than ever. The 
government had thus a '' surplus," — more money than it really 
needed; and men began to talk of ways of reducing taxa- 
tion.* 

677. The Tariff of 1883.— Congress directed a Tariff Com- 
mission, composed of men familiar with the subject, to be 

* The debt touched its highest point in August, 1665, when it was S3.844,640,626. 
Every month the government had paid some of it— sometimes more, sometimes 
less; and in December, 1H8;}, the debt, less cash in the Treasury, amounted to 
$1,510,000,000, and $.556,000,000 of this was in the form of paper money, bearing no 
interest. Such a reduction of debt lias no parallel in the history of any country. 



1884] QARFIELD'S AND ARTHURS ADMimSTRATIONti. 267 

appointed ; and on their report it adopted a new tarifi of 
duties on imports (1883). The reduction proved less than had 
been expected, and the Democrats in Congress attempted to 
make a further reduction the next year; but the attempt was 
defeated by the Republicans, with the aid of some Democrats. 
The difficulty was, that under a system of protection men 
invest their money in manufactories ; that they fear that a 
reduction of duties on imports will enable foreign manufactur- 
ers to sell their goods in this country cheaper than they can ; 
and that they will thus lose the money which they have in- 
vested, and be ruined. And, on the other hand, the fear of 
injuring them makes it very difficult for the government to 
reduce the tariff duties, even when it is necessary to reduce 
the revenue. 

678. Presidential Election (1884).— The Presidential Elec- 
tion of 1884 came on in the midst of the discussion of the 
tariff. The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine, of Maine, 
and John A. Logan, of Illinois, supporting the system of pro- 
tection, and denouncing the attempt of the Democrats in 
Congress to reduce the tariff duties. The Democrats, saying 
as little as possible about the general question of protection, 
demanded a reduction of the revenue, and nominated Grover 
Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indi- 
ana. After an exciting struggle the Democratic candidates 
were elected. 

[Supplementary Reading. — From this point reference would be 
mostly to bound newspapers or periodicals, which would be unavailable 
to most pupils. The followins: maybe of service: (%Q11) Appleton, 
xxi. 194, 317, 846; xxii. 127; Bundy's Garfield; Ogiivie's Qarfield. 
(§ 672) Appleton, xxi. 36. (§'.673) N. A. Rev., Jan., 1871 ; Atlantic, July. 
1877; N. A. Rev., June, 1881, July, Oct., 1882; Cent. Mag., June, 1882; 
Trib. Aim., 1884, 36; Appleton, xxiii. 165. (§ 674) Stevens's Yorktown 
Centennial Hand-Book; Appleton, xxi. 869. (§675) Trib. Aim., 1883, 
15; Appleton, xxi. 859, xxiii. 812; xxiv. 791. (§676) N. A. Rev., Jan., 
Feb.. May, July. Nov.. 1880, Feb., Dec, 1881; Appleton, xxi. 714. 
(§678) Cent. Mag., March, 1887; Harper's Mag., March, 1887; Appleton, 
xxi. 260; Kelley's Old South and the New. (§ 679) Laughlin, 287; Spof- 
ford. Index under Debt. (§680) Taussig, 76; Trib. Aim., 1884, 15; Ap- 
pleton, xxii. 139, xxiii. 193. xxiv. 784. (§681) Trib. Aim., 1885,17; 
Roberts's New York, 713; Appleton. xxiv. 767.] 



268 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1887 

(3) Cleveland's Auministuatiox: 1885-9. 

679. The New President. — The country had not hitherto 
seen so sudden a rise to prominence as the elections of Grover 
Cleveland as Mayor of Buffalo (1881), Governor of New York 
(1882), and President of the United States (1884). Much of 
this rapid elevation had been due to his fearlessness and ad- 
mitted integrity; and the circumstances of his administration 
were such as to test both these qualities. 

680. Foreigrii and Naval Affairs. — A French company had 
been digging a canal acro.ss the Isthmus of Panama, while an 
American company proposed to dig another across Nicaragua. 
It was felt by many Americans that the United States ought 
to have control of the successful canal, as an important route 
for commerce between our Atlantic and Pacific coasts; and yet 
other nations would not take this kindly. The French com- 
pany, however, proved a failure; it broke down in the midst 
of its Avork (1889). There were disputes with Great Jiritain 
about the right of American fishermen to buy ice and bait in 
Canadian ports, and Avitli Germany about a group of islands 
in the Pacific called Samoa. All these misunderstandings 
were settled peacefully, but they led to the appropriation of 
large sums for the construction of improved and more power- 
ful and swift iron-clads for the navy. 

681. The Presidential Succession Act. — The laws were so 
changed that in case of the death of both President and Vice- 
President the members of the Cabinet (§ 731) would succeed 
to the Presidency in an order stated in the law (1886). Un- 
der this system it seems not jiossible that the death of any 
one or more men should throw the government into confusion. 

682. The Electoral Count Act. — Another Act of Congress 
was at last passed (1887) to relieve the country of the danger 
of such disputed elections as that of 1876-77 (§ 645). It was 
intended to provide a way in which each State could decide 
for itself which were its electoral votes, so as to remove the 
subject from Congress. 

683. Ballot Reform.— During 1887 and 1888 promising 
efforts began to be made in the different States to change the 



1887] CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 269 

method of voting to that which had beeu remarkably success- 
ful in Australia, Great Britain, and other coujitries in stopping 
bribery and interference with voters, and securing an abso- 
lutely secret ballot. 

684. New States. — Provision was made for the admission 
of four new States — North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, 
and Washington (1889). This increased the number of States 
to forty-two. * 

685. Inter-State Commerce Act. — One of the most important 
laws passed was the Inter-State Commerce Act (1887), in- 
tended to prevent railroads operating in more than one State 
from charging unfair rates for carrying goods. Such prac- 
tices Avere forbidden, and a Commission of three persons was 
appointed to hear and try complaints against any railroad 
disobeying the law. Each State, however, continued to con- 
trol the railroads operated only within its own territory. 

686. Labor Troubles. — The increase of wealth had brought 
an increase in the number of very rich men. If all their 
wealth should be divided among their fellow-citizens it would 
give very little to each; but the sight of their easy and pleas- 
ant life was enough to persuade many workingmen that they 
were working harder tlian was necessary. Great numbers of 
them formed associations which refused to work unless for 
higher wages and with shorter hours. This they had a perfect 
right to do. They were successful in some cases, and failed 
in others. In some cases when they failed they tried to 
frighten other men from taking their places. These latter 
were workingmen, who had a right to work where they pleased ; 
and public opinion turned against the associations which were 
oppressing labor in their way as badly as the employers of 
whom they complained. Some employers had made '"black- 
lists" of men whom they did not like, and these lists were 
sent from one employer to another, so that the men could find 
employment nowhere. The early years of Cleveland's term 
were full of these '* labor troubles," and of efforts to make 

* In 1890 Idaho and Wyoming Territories were admitted as States, making in all 
forty-four States. 



270 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1887 

laws to settle them. Some rich employers brought large num- 
bers of workmen from Europe at very low wages; and Con- 
gress passed a Contract Labor Act, hoping to stop this prac- 
tice, and a still stronger Act against Chinese immigration 
(§ 668). Some violent men called Anarchists, mostly from 
Europe, who wished to destroy all government, made loud 
threats of disorder, and rose in riot in Chicago. When they 
had been put down, there were many proposals to check im- 
migration in some way, but they came to nothing. 

687. The President's Policy — President Cleveland had a 
decided belief that there was a disposition to pass too many 
Acts of Congress, and too hastily; and he had no fear of put- 
ting his belief in practice. He vetoed (§ 741) a number of 
Acts, particularly for special grants of pensions, and thus 
made the opi^osition to him more intense. He enforced the 
Civil-Service Act (§ 672), but the old system of appointment 
continued as to many of the offices to which that Act did not 
apply; and for this he was warmly attacked. At the same 
time, however, by repealing the Tenure-of-Office Act (§ 626) 
Congress increased the President's power of removal. 

688. The Tariff. — By this time the internal-revenue taxes 
(§564) had been gradually abolished, with the exception of 
the taxes on tobacco and intoxicating liquors. The "surplus" 
was growing larger, for the Government's revenue was increas- 
ing, while its need for money was decreasing (§676). The 
Tariff of 1883 had made but a slight reduction in the duties 
(§677), and the growing "surplus" brought the question up 
again. 

689. The Surplus. — It may seem a very good thing for a 
government to have so large an amount of money to its credit 
as was then lying unused in the Treasury,* but it was really 
a very bad thing, for many reasons. This surplus was a very 
small part of the country's wealth, but a very large part of its 
money; and the country needs all its money to carry on its 
business. To lock up part of the country's money in idleness 

♦ In December, 1887, the Treasury estimated the surphis for the year at 
$113,000,000. 



1S88J CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 271^ 

is to hinder just so much of the country's business, and give 
every one just so much less woi'k and wealth. And, further, 
so much idle money in the Treasury is a constant temptation 
to Congress to spend it wastefuUyand extravagantly, and keep 
up the taxation. The two parties were therefore compelled 
to consider ways of reducing taxation. The Democrats wished 
to reduce the tariff duties: the protected manufacturers de- 
clared that this would ruin them (§ G77), and the Eepublicans 
upheld the view of the manufacturers. 

690. Cleveland's Message. — When Congress met in Decem- 
ber, 1887, the Treasury reported to the President that, if the 
withdrawal of money from business into the Treasury should 
continue, the result would be a panic (§ 408). The President 
therefore confined his annual Message to an appeal to Congress 
to reduce the duties on imported goods, as the only advisable 
method of decreasing the revenue and the surplus. This 
brought up again the old issue of Free Trade (or a Revenue 
Tariff) against Protection (§ 359). 

691. The Trusts. — The interest in the matter was increased 
by a new feature in business management about this time. 
Corporations are bodies of men united under control of law 
so that they can sue and be sued in the courts. Some of 
these corporations began to unite into "trusts," for which 
there was no law. It was asserted that they kept prices high, 
and were aided in so doing by the tariff, which kept out for- 
eign goods. 

692. The Mills Bill.— The Democrats, who had a small 
majority in the House of Representatives, brought in a bill to 
reduce the duties on imports: it was called the Mills Bill, 
from the name of its author. A few of the Democratic Con- 
gressmen were protectionists, and it was only after nearly six 
months of argument that they consented to support the Mills 
Bill, which was then passed by the House, but was lost in the 
Senate, where the Republicans had a majority. 

693. The Presidential Election (1888).— In the midst of 
the discussion, nominations for the Presidential election of 
1888 were made by both parties: Grover Cleveland, of New 



272 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1889 

York, iiud Allen G, Tlmrnian, of Ohio, by the Democrats; and 
Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of New- 
York, by the RepublicaTis. Tlie Democrats supported the 
Mills Bill, as the only advisable method of reducing the sur- 
plus; the Republicans denounced it as an attack on the pro- 
tected industries of the country. The election was decided 
by the electoral votes of the State of New York; they were 
cast for Harrison and Morton, who were elected. 'I'hey were 
inaugurated March 4, 1889. This completed the first cen- 
tury of the republic under the Constitution (Chap. XI). 

694. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of 
Hayes', Garfield and Arthur's, and Cleveland's administra- 
tions were as follows : 

1877-81 : Hayes' Term of Office §659 

1877 : Railroad Strikes 663 

1878 : Remouetization of Silver 665 

1879 : Resumption 666 

Ref uudiug 667 

1880 : Chinese Immigration Acts 668 

Census of 1880 660 

1881-85 : Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations 671 

1881 : Assassination of the President 671 

1882 : Anti-Polygamy Acts 673 

1883 : Civil Service Act 672 

Tariff Act 677 

1885-89 : Cleveland's Administration 679 

1886 : Presidential Succession Act 681 

1887 : Electoral Count Act 682 

Inter-State Commerce Act 685 

1888: Mills Bill before Congress 692 

Election of Harrison and Morton 693 

1880 : New States 684 



CHAPTER X. 

PAST, PRESENT. AND FUTURE. 

(1) General Summary. 

695. The History of the United States. — The rise of other 
gi'eat nations has been long and slow, and most events in 
their early history are buried in obscurity; but it is not so 
with the United States of America. It is less than four hun- 
dred years since the discovery of America (§ 5), and less than 
three hundred years since the English colonies in America 
were begun (§ 24). During this period there are but few 
occurrences about which there is any uncertainty: the student 
can see quite clearly the birth and growth of the nation. 

696. The State System. — The States were the first to ap- 
pear, and they have always been a necessary part of the nation. 
Thirteen of them were founded, one by one, along the Atlantic 
coast, and thirty-one others have since been founded as they 
have been needed. They have made the United States dif- 
ferent from any of the other great nations. France, for 
example, is everywhere alike; and all parts of it are governed, 
as far as possible, by the government at Paris. In the United 
States each State is left as far as possible to govern itself; 
and it is only in matters relating to the whole people that laws 
are made by the government at Washington. This is the 
only wise system under which so large a country as the United 
States could be kept under one government.* 

* If the government at Washin^on attempted, as in France, to make laws for the 
whole country in small as well as in great matters, it would not know what would be 

373 



274 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 

697. The Nation. — The nation was born of the union of the 
colonies or States against Great Britain. Tiiey liad always been 
glad to acknowledge the King of Great Britain as their king; 
but they would not be governed l)y a distant Parliament, 
which could know nothing of their needs. Bad laws were 
made by Parliament, and were resisted peaceably by the col- 
onies. At last tlie resistance came to force in the fight at 
Lexington (§ 165), and that made the new nation. It still 
acknowledged the same king; but it when found that the king 
was determined to be on the side of Parliament, it abolished 
his authority, and declared its independence of him also 
(§ 186). The States were independent colonies without the 
nation; the nation could not long maintain its existence with- 
out the State organizations. Each is necessary to the other: 
and the two have made the country what it is. 

698. Growth of the Nation. — This history has been told to 
very little purpose if it has not kept before the mind of the 
reader the wonderful growth of the nation — a growth which 
was wonderful even in its small beginnings, and which is now 
taking such leaps that it is even more talked about and 
thought about in other countries than ni our own. Every 
vear brings to our shores thinking men from other countries, 
who do not come to settle here, or merely to look at Niagara 
or the big trees of California, but to see with their own eyes 
a growth such as has never been seen on earth before. It is 
proper, then, for us to conclude by considering the present 
state of the country, the reasons for its wonderful growth, 
and the possibilities of its future. 

(2) State of thk ("oixtky. 

699. Territory of the United States. — The Chinese Empire, 
the British Empire, including its various de]iendencies, and 
the Russian Empire, are larger than the United States. 

best for distant parts of the country. The result would be bad laws, discontent, rebel- 
lion, and finally the splitting of the country into different countries. All this is 
avoided by leaving each State to make laws which relate particularly to its own 
people and territory, 



STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 275 

But these are not really single nations like the United States: 
each of them is a union of a great number of nations, under 
the control of a single government. If we compare our own 
country with the single Jiations that we are accustomed to 
read of in history, the United States (not including Alaska) 
would make about twenty-five such countries as Italy or 
Great Britain, or fifteen such countries as France, Sj^ain, 
Germany, or Austro-Hungary. Texas alone is larger than any 
of the four last named, and California than either of the two 
former. 

700. Natural Advantages.— The country is almost a world 
in itself. If the rest of the world were blotted out, the soil 
of the United States could still produce almost everything 
needed by its inhabitants. The American may experience 
almost every variety of climate without leaving his own coun- 
try: some of the Dakota farmers regularly spend their winters 
among the orange-groves of Florida. The fertility of the soil 
is remarkable almost everywhere: regions like Nebraska, 
which were at first thought to be desert, have been found to 
be remarkably productive. Most other nations use more 
wheat than they produce: the United States consumes 300,- 
000,000 bushels of wheat every year, and still has 150,000,000 
bushels to sell to other nations. Coal,* iron, gold, silver, cop- 
per, lead, oil, all the metals and minerals needed by man are 
stored away for his use beneatli the surface of the United 
States in abundance. The American may get almost any- 
thing he wishes from his own country by working for it. 

701. Growth of Population. — The population of the United 
States was over 50,000,000 in 1880 (§ 6G0). This is already 
greater than that of any other thoroughly civilized nation. 
It is not so large as the population of China, British India, or 
Russia; but these people are strong only in numbers, while 
the people of the United States are strong in all the forces of 

* In modern times, when machinery connts for so much^ the wealth of a coun- 
try depends very much on its supply of coal. Great Britain's coal supply will be 
used up in a century, and it is hard to say what she will do then. We know 
already of 200,000 square miles of coal territory in the United States— forty times 
as muciB as in Great Britain, and twenty times as much as in all Europe together. 



276 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE, 

civilization. But it is not tlie present alone that is remark- 
able: it is the possibilities of the future. It was noticed long 
ago that the American people doubled in number every 
twenty-five years. Now a doubling, when the population was 
only about 2,000,000, was not so striking an event; but a 
doubling when the population is already 50,000,000 is some- 
thing which must attract attention. It means that, by natu- 
ral increase, a regiment of fighting men is added to the 
strength of the United States every day, or an army of 300,- 
000 fighting men every year. It means that the population 
ought to be 100,000,000 fifteen years from now, in 1905, and 
200,000,000 in 1930. Good judges think that the territory of 
the United States will support tlie 800,000,000 persons; that 
may be the population of the United States before the end 
of the next century. 

702. Material Advantages. — Numbers, or extent of ter- 
ritory, would be but poor things if they were all the country 
could boast of. But the power of the country grows far 
faster than its numbers grow. Every year a million sewing- 
machines are produced; they can do more work than twelve 
million women could do by hand; and thus the working 
power of the country grows faster even than its women in- 
crease. It is the same with steam machinery in regard to 
men. When the population numbers 200,000,000, with all 
the powers of machinery, steam, and electricity to help it, it 
will be a power such as the world has never seen, and will 
probably not see elsewhere.* 

703. Peace.— The natural condition of the American peo- 
ple is one of peace. They have no neighbors strong enough 
to annoy them, and they have no desire to war on others, for 
their territory is already as large as they can manage. Since 
the disappearance of slavery, there is nothing within the 
country to make war necessary. Other countries may jierhaps 
have wars, battles, wholesale destruction of life and property: 

* The people of Great Britain and other civilized countries have the same advan- 
tages of machinery, bnt tlieir territory is so small that they can never approach 
ih^ future numbers of the United States. 



8TATE OF THE COUNTRr. 211 

the people of the United States have no desire for such things, 
and are not likely to have them forced upon them. 

704. The Army.— Armies are not needed here. Russia 
must keep a million of men constantly in her army, and 
France and Germany half a million each, for their neighbors 
will plunder them if they do not. The American people have 
an army of 25,000 men, and yet the people often grumble as 
if that were too many. They are fearless of attack from their 
neighbors, for other countries know that in a just war Con- 
gress can have for the asking three million soldiers. And so 
the people are not taxed, nor workingmen taken away from 
work, in order to keep up a monstrous army in time of peace. 

705. Railroads and Telegraphs. — There were more miles 
of railroad in the United States in 1886 (133,607 miles) than 
in all Europe, and neai'ly as many as in all the world outside 
of the United States. The number is increasing at the rate 
of about 10,000 miles each year. There were three times as 
many miles of telegraph in the United States in 1887 (176,- 
000 miles) as in any other country. This quantity is in- 
creasing at the rate of about 20,000 miles each year. 

706. The National Deht— In 1865, the government was 
weighed down by a debt of nearly three thousand millions 
(§ 676). It went to work by the old-fashioned method of 
paying the debt as fast as possible. In twenty years it has 
paid about 11,200,000,000, and only stops now because its 
creditors will not consent to be paid any further at present. 

707. Education.— There were in the United States in 1880 
nearly a quarter of a million public schools (225,880), in 
which over six million pupils were in daily attendance (6,276,- 
398). The expenses of these schools are paid by the people, 
by taxation, and the results have been so excellent that other 
countries are rapidly following the same plan. There were 
nearly 400 colleges (364) in addition to schools of medicine, 
law, and theology. There were more than 11,000 newspapers 
and periodicals (11,314).* 

* Of the newspapers, 971 were published daily, Issuing 3,566,395 copies per dav. 
The weekly press issued 88,213,391 copies per week. 



278 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 

708. Religion. — It was for a very long time a settled belief 
of most Christian denominations that the state should aid the 
church by taxing the people for its support. Nearly every 
nation had its state church, and most of the States, while 
they were colonies, followed the rule. Since they have become 
a nation they have changed it. The chuiches are supported 
by the free-will offerings of those who belong to them, and 
they have prospered by the change. It is believed that there 
are about 90,000 congregations in the United States belonging 
to the various denominations ; and they are more generally 
prosperous than if they depended on govei-nment aid. They 
not only carry on their own work, but aid others. In the 
South, in the frontier towns of the far West, and in the evil 
places of the large cities, there are great numbers of missions 
supported by churclies. 

709. Benevolence. — Private and public benevolence is ex- 
ceedingly common ; so much so as to be sometimes unwisely 
directed. Hospitals, asylums, charitable associations of every 
kind show the kindly spirit of the people for misfortune. 
That kind of public spirit which is shown by giving money to 
public uses is exceedingly common in the United States. 
There are not many cities or towns which cannot show a lios- 
pital, a park, a library, a college, or some similar public in- 
stitution, presented to the public by some one who has pros- 
pered in the place. There is a general feeling of contempt 
for the ii(di man who dies without "leaving some of his 
money to the place where he made it." 

710. National Wealth. — The country is not yet the richest 
in the world, but it is surpassed by Great Britain only. In 
1870 the United States stood third in wealth ; in 1880 it 
passed France and stood second. In its yearly income and 
increase of wealth it already surpasses Great Britain and all 
otiier countries.* 

711. State of the Conntry. — Here, then, is a country in 

♦ The following table will Rive rough estimates of the wealth, the annual income, 
the manufactures, and the total industries of Great Britain and the United States 
uud the increase of each since 18T0. It is taken from an English writer (Mr. Mul- 



CAUSES OF GROWTH. 



279 



which there was uot a settler 280 years ago ; and now (1888) 
it contains one sixth of the wealth of the world. It has ter- 
ritory sufficient to accommodate almost any number of peo- 
ple ; and the people who inhabit it are, to say the least, as 
active, as intelligent, and as civilized as any in the world. 
The sunlight, as it passes every day from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific, wakes a population of nearly 60,000,000, whose 
workers labor very hard. They already do one third of all 
the mining in the world, one fourth of all the manufactur- 
ing, and one fifth of all the agriculture. Every night they 
are stronger by a regiment of fighting men, and richer by 
two millions of dollars than the night before. "It would 
be impossible," says Mr. Mulhall in 1882, " to find in history 
a parallel to the progress of the United States in the last ten 
years." And yet all this is very little, compared with what 
the future is to see. 

(3) Causes of Growth. 

712. Growth of Other Countries. — Other countries have 
had as fair opportunities as the United States, but have made 
no such use of them. The Spanish colonies in South America 
and Mexico had a far larger territory and richer soil than 
the English colonies of ]S[orth America, but they have never 
formed a great nation, or become powerful separately. There 



hall), considering the poimd sterling as five dollars. The figures represent millions 
of dollars. 





Great Britain. 


United States. 




(Millions of Dollars.) 


{Millions of Dollars.) 


Wealth, total 

Increase in ten years. . 


44,800 
3,350 


39,400 
7.800 


Annual Income ...... 

Increase in ten years. . 


.5,780 
975 


7,030 
1,720 




3,790 
580 


4,440 
1,030 


Increase in ten years. . 


Total Industries 

Increase in ten years . . 


10,130 
1.685 


10,020 
2.625 



'280 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 

must be reasons wliy these English colonies liave prospered so 
amazingly, and it would be well for us to consider them, that 
we may do no worse, at least, than our fathers have done. 

713. Democracy.— The institutions of the country have 
had much to do with its progress. From the beginning the 
country has had no privileged classes or noble families ; no 
man has been able to claim an office or support from the peo- 
ple as his right merely because his father had won a victory 
or gained wealth. Every man has known that, no matter 
how poor he might be at first, he could go just as high as he 
was able to overcome the natural difficulties in the way; there 
were few artificial ones. When a whole people have ambition, 
and have hopes of success for themselves and their children, 
they are certain to do far harder and better work for it. The 
boy cutting rails on the prairie knows that his poverty cannot 
of itself prevent him from reaching the highest position the 
country affords ; the children of the President know that the 
dignity of his position cannot of itself prevent them from fall- 
ing to the lowest class, if they should prove unworthy. 

714. Education. — The American people have set apart a 
large portion of their wealth to take care that the children of 
every man, rich or poor, shall have the opportunity, at least, 
to obtain an education. They have thus made their farmers, 
mechanics, and miners more intelligent than those of othei- 
countries, more quick to hit on new and ui^efnl inventions, 
and more handy in managing the inventions already in use. 
They have also helped their voters to vote more intelligently, 
and have helped to diminish crime, for it is not quite so 
likely that a man will become a criminal if he has the power 
to vote and a fair share of education. 

715. Work. — Americans have always been a hard-working 
people, and their hard work has done very much to make tiieir 
country great. They have always been anxious to make inven- 
tions, not for the purpose of avoiding work, but for the {)urpose 
of making their work still more effective. The young man 
who goes from the country to the city because he has or seeks 
the opportunity to work harder or more effectively, aids in the 



CAUSES OF GROWTH. 281 

growth of the country : but he wlio goes for the purpose of 
avoiding hard work is really doing all he can to injure the 
country which should be dear to him. He who gives up farm- 
ing or a trade to work harder or more effectively in some other 
way does well: but he who does so only for the purpose of 
living more easily does foolishly, and will live and die a failure, 
for he has none of the American spirit in him, and will be 
beaten in the race by others who have it. 

716. Energy. — This power of hard work has come largely 
from the energy of the people : they have never been afraid of 
difficulties. The greater the difficulty has seemed, the greater 
has been the fury with which they have attacked it again and 
again until it has gone down before them. From the starving 
time in Virginia and the first bitter winters of New England 
until now, the American has always been ready to do or en- 
dure anything if he can see that it is of any use to himself or 
others. Until 1861 the people of other countries believed 
that all this energy was simple greed, and that Americans 
were " dollar-hunters," who thought only of getting money. 
In 1861 the danger of a tremendous civil war fell on them, 
and they showed the same energy in granting their money, in 
taxing themselves unmercifully, and in fighting as stubbornly 
as men can fight. At the end of the war they attacked their 
debt in the same spirit and paid it iu the same way. Ameri- 
cans believe that there is no difficulty that they cannot master 
in time; and their children must be taught the same belief. 

717. Honesty and Good Faith. — Many men in other coun- 
tries believe that, in a country where every man, good or bad, 
lich or poor, has a vote, the people will vote for evil measures 
because they seem to be to their own profit. This has not 
been so in the United States. It would have been to the 
profit of the people for a time, if they had refused to pay their 
debt ; and there was no power which could have made them 
pay. Instead of refusing or hesitating, their representatives 
in Congress were urged to tax the people steadily until the 
debt was mastered. And now, if the United States should 
wish to borrow money, the rich men of other countries would 



282 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 

contend witli one another for the privilege of lending it, for 
they know that the honesty and good faith of the American 
people would make it absolutely safe. Amei-icaiis have made 
mistakes ; but they have regularly meant and tried to do the 
thing which was right and hojiest. 

718. The Land and the People. — The natural advantages 
of the country, its soil, mines, rivers, and harbors, are great; 
but it is the qualities above named that have enabled the 
Americans to make such wonderful use of their advantages. 
If their children shall learn to think, feel, and act as their 
fathers did not ; if they shall forget the honesty, the energy, 
the love of work, the cultivation of education, and the relig- 
ious feeling which marked their ancestors, the natural advan- 
tages of the country will help them no more than those of 
Brazil or Mexico have helped their people. It is the people 
that make the land great : the land alone will never make the 
people great. 

(4) The Future. 

719. The Possibilities of the Future. — Fifty years hence, 
when we number two hundred millions or more, there will 
be no power on earth to be compared with the United States 
of America. For the two hundred millions will not be such 
as live in China, Hindostan, or Russia, but civilized men, 
helped by steam, electricity, and macliinery, so that each of 
them can do the work of a score of Chinese. They can, if 
they should be foolish or wicked enough to wish to do so, 
maintain fleets and armies sufficient to overawe the rest of the 
world. They can make other nations dread their anger and 
vield to their slightest demand. They can make their coun- 
try a bully and a nuisance among the nations. 

720. The Danger. — Such a power, so mansiged, would be 
the most terrible evil the world has yet seen. It would bring 
its own punishment upon the guilty people. If the moral 
forces which have made the country what it is should be lost, 
national decay would soon rid the earth of the evil, and free 



THE FUTURE. 283 

other nations from anxiety. North America lias been the 
graveyard of other races before ours (§ 6); and it may yet be 
the graveyard of our own. 

721. Responsibility of the People, — It is the boundeu duty 
of those who are growing up to manhood and womanhood to 
take care tliat no such evil shall come to pass. Each of them 
is, to some extent, an engineer to whose cure has been en- 
trusted an engine whose explosion would injure the whole hu- 
man race. Wherever he sees an ignorant voter, a wicked 
voter, or a man who makes voters ignorant or wicked, he sees 
an enemy of himself, of his country, and of humanity. Wher- 
ever he finds evil, even in himself, he sees his proper battle- 
ground ; and he can there fight for his country as truly as 
with rifle or sabre. Tf he lives out man's allotted time of life, 
he will be rewarded in seeing his country respected and hon- 
ored by all other nations as no nation has yet been respected 
or honored, and in feeling that he has done his part in the 
work. 



CHAPTER XI. 

The Constitution of the United States, 

722. The New System.* — The adoption of the Constitution 
in 1789 made the third form of government under which 
tlie people of the United States have lived. The first was 
that of the British Empire, the people living in separate col- 
onies under that government. The second, following the 
change of the colonies into States, was known as the Con- 
federation, the general or national government being a very 
feeble one. The third was that provided for by the Constitu- 
tion, under which we still live and by which a far better 
national government iias been introduced. 

723. Forms of Government. — Under the present system, the 
American citizen lives at the same time under three forms of 
government: (1) The town (or school-district), county, or 
city, being the form which has most to do with the citizen 
and is of the most constant importance to him; (2) the 
State, which has less to do with the citizen, but is of the 
greatest importance to the country; (3) the Federal gov- 
ernment, which has least to do with the citizen, but which is 
of the greatest importance to the country as a nation, both in 
its dealings with other nations and in the defence of its own 
existence. 

724. The Individual. — If political institutions, that is, gov- 

* It is evident, of course, that there is space here for only the merest outline of the 
governmental system of the United States, for those great features which it is im- 
portant that every pupil should know. More minute details will require a more spe- 
cial course of study and text-book. This outline has been reserved to the end of the 
book, while constant cross-references to it have been inserted in preceding chapters; 
it is hoped that in this way pupils will come to this chapter better prepared to 
appreciate its practical importance. 

284 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 285 

ernmeut and laws of every kind, are sound and good, their 
purpose will not be to show the power and grandeur of the 
government or of the people, but to give every single person 
just as much freedom of action as can possibly be given him 
without interfering with the like freedom of other persons. 
This is what is meant by individual liberty. A man harms 
himself by voting for any law which is to interfere unjustly 
with the freedom of other men, for he thereby cuts down his 
own freedom. There must be some laws which, for the gen- 
eral good, interfere with the liberty of the individual; but it 
is to the interest of every one that there should be as few of 
these as possible, and that most of these should be laws 
made in their town, county, or city governments by the very 
people who are to be interfered with. The great success 
of the American system is the closeness with which it ap- 
proaches perfection in this respect. 

725. Town and County Crovernments, — These are the oldest 
of our three forms of government, for we find the first of 
them in the very beginnings of colonization. The town gov- 
ernment was the form adopted by the New England Colo- 
nies. The Southern Colonies, which had more tei'ritory, did 
most of their governing through counties or parishes some- 
what larger than the towns of New England; but the prin- 
ciple of government, was about the same for both. The 
Middle and Western States have united the two, doing part 
of their governing through townships or school districts, and 
part through counties. These town and county governments 
are the closest to the citizen's daily life, and ought to have 
his most constant interest. They care for schools, roads, 
bridges, police, the poor, the trials of small law-suits, and all 
the matters of daily life in which most men are oftenest in- 
terested. 

726. Cities — When a part of a town or county becomes 
more thickly settled, it comes to have needs of its own. The 
State therefore sets it off from the rest of the town or county 
and makes it a city (in some cases a village or borough), as a 
form of government through which it may better care for 



286 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

these needs. It must have gas, water, sewerage, high-schools, 
paved streets, and other more costly conveniences; and it is 
best that the need for such things and their cost should be 
decided by those who are to- pay for tliem. 

727. Taxation.— Taxes for such purposes are paid in the 
first place mainly by those who own hind, houses, and other 
property. But that does not end the matter. The owners 
who have paid the tax on the bntclier-shops of a town always 
try to get it back by raising tlie rent of the shops; and in this 
way the butchers who rent shops often pay back more than 
the original tax. But that does not end the matter either. 
The butchers try to make up this increase of rent by adding 
a few cents to the price of every side of beef and quarter of 
lamb; and in this way their customers pay in trifles and with- 
out noticing it more than the original tax, a sum which would 
frighten them if it were called for in the lump. So the poorer 
people, who own no land or houses, and think they pay no 
ta.xes, are the real tax-payers in the end; and they are the 
ones who ought to watch taxes most carefully and get the 
worth of their money for them. 

728. The State. — In the smaller number of matters which 
concern all the people of a State, and not the people of a 
town, county, or city alone, the State government acts, makes 
laws, and levies and expends taxes. The name " State " is apt 
to be misleading. In other countries than ours tlu; term " Sov- 
t-reign State " means a completely independent nation, like 
France or Great Britain. Many of our people have been dis- 
posed to speak of the States as "Sovereign States," although 
none of them (except Texas) has ever been sovereign "and in- 
dependent; and they have always acted together, as colonies 
of one empire, as United Colonies, or as United States. If a 
State were really sovereign and independent, it could withdraAv 
(or secede) from the Union when it wished. This has been 
tried {% 501), and it has been found that it is so injurious to 
the rest of the Union that civil war is the inevitable result. 
Nevertheless, the term "Sovereign State'' is still occasionally 
heard, but it now means merely that a State, under our sys- 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 287 

tem, has supreme control over such matters as the Constitu- 
tion has left to it. 

729. State Rights. — But it is as true as ever that our sys- 
tem of States is the peculiar excellence and glory of the 
American Union, the feature which distinguishes it from 
other countries, and that which makes it possible to hold so 
large a territory under one government with so little difficulty. 
If the Federal Government were ever so powerful, it could 
not know enough of the needs of Oregon or Texas to manage 
all the affairs of those distant States wisely and well. Thence 
would come discontent, murmurs, resistance, rebellion, and 
war; and this could not happen often without a break-up of 
the Union itself. By leaving State affairs to the State 
governments the Union has spread from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific, and forty-two States find as little difficulty in living 
together as thirteen. Experience shows that it is best to 
leave as many rights as possible to the States, so that " State 
rights" is a term as correct and proper as "State sover- 
eignty" is misleading.* 

730. The State GrOYerninents. — Each of the States has its 
own Constitution, framed by its people. These State Con- 
stitutions differed very much at first, but now they have all 
come to be much like the Constitution of the United States. 
The Governor of the State answers to the President of the 
United States, the two Houses of the Legislature to the two 
Houses of Congress, and the State courts to the Federal 
courts. The State has its militia army (but no navy), taxes 
its own citizens for such purposes as it thinks best, controls 
the corporations Avhich do business within that State, man- 
ages the general school system, and all the other general 
interests of the State, and forms town, county, and city 
governments wherever they are needed. 

731. The Federal GoTernment. — The Constitution took 
away some of the powers Avhich the States had formerly exei'- 
cised, and gave them to a Federal government, composed of 

* The pupil should be informed, however, that in books written before 1865 it 
was the common and bad practice to use the term " State rights " as if it meant 
'•State sovereignt3-." 



288 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

three departments, Legislative, Executive, aud Judicial (§253). 
The Legislative Department consists of the two Houses of 
Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. In 
the Senate, every State, large or small, has the same repre- 
sentation. In the House of Representatives, the States are 
represented according to population, the large States having 
more members and the small States less. The consent of 
both houses is necessary for the passage of a law. The 
Executive Department consists of the President and the pub- 
lic servants under him (§ 736). The Judicial Department 
consists of the United States courts (§ 743). 

732. The Senate. — The Senate consists of two Senators 
from each State, chosen for six years by the Legislature of 
the State. There are (in 1890) 88 Senators, from 44 States. 
As one third of the Senators go out of office every two years, 
so it takes some years to make any considerable change in the 
whole body. The usual work of the Senate is to take part 
with the House of Representatives in making laws; but it has 
three powers of its own: (I) It ratifies treaties: no treaty 
which the President makes with a foreign country is of any 
force until two thirds of the Senators have voted to approve 
it. (2) It confirms the President's appointments of officers; 
except in cases as to which some law has given up the power, 
the Senate must confirm an appointment by the President 
before it takes effect. (3) It tries impeachments: when the 
House of Representatives votes to " impeach " (accuse) any 
public officer of misconduct in office, the Senate tries the 
case. If it is the President who is being tried, the Chief Jus- 
tice of the Supreme Court presides over the trial, and two 
thirds of the Senators must vote guilty in order to convict. 
The punishment in case of conviction is removal from 
office. 

733. The House of Representatives. — The other body which 
takes part in making laws is the House of Representatives. 
Its members are elected foi- two years by the people of the 
States, in proportion to population. In 1890 there are 332 
Representatives, New York having the greatest number (34), 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 289 

and Colorado, Delaware, and Nevada the least (one each). 
The House has one power peculiar to itself, already i-eferred 
to, that of impeaching public officers. 

734. Powers of Congress. — The subjects on which Congress 
may pass laws are in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. 
They are very numerous, but it must not be supposed that 
these are all the subjects as to which laws might be passed, if 
the Constitution permitted it. There are many more subjects 
not named here; but these are reserved to the State Legisla- 
tures. Some of the powers which Congress has are : to lev}^ 
taxes of every kind (except on exports), for the purpose of 
paying the debts and providing for the general defence of the 
country; to borrow money; to regulate commerce; to coin 
money; to declare and carry on war; and to govern the Ter- 
ritories. Laws on the subjects named must be passed by both 
Houses, and the President has a limited vote upon them 
(§741). If Congress should pass a law on some subject with 
which the Constitution has not empowered it to deal, the law 
is said to be unconstitutional (§ 744). 

735. Powers denied to the States. — Some powers which 
might seem to be reserved to the States are denied to them 
by the Constitution. A State can make no treaty, and can- 
not tax imports; nor can it, without the consent of Congress, 
arm itself, prepare for war, or make war, except in self- 
defence. 

736. The Executive. — The word " Executive " is usually 
taken to mean the President. It really means the President, 
all the "civil service" (Department secretaries, clerks, post- 
masters, Indian-agents, marshals, etc.), and all the army and 
navy; so that the Executive Department really numbers 
about 150,000 persons. The duties of these persons are 
marked out by laws passed by Congress, and the President 
oversees them, removing them from office if they disobey or 
are inefficient, and appointing others to their places. 

737. The Cabinet. — The executive force is divided into 
Departments, of which there are (in 1890) eight: The De- 
partments of State, of the Treasury, of War, of the Navy, of 



290 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

the Interior, of the Post-office, of Justice, and of Agricul- 
ture. They have now large buildings of their own in Wash- 
ington, and are divided into bureaus, each consisting of a 
great number of clerks. Each Department is managed by 
a Secretary, and these Secretaries form what is called the 
President's Cabinet, as they meet from time to time to give 
him advice, which he follows or not, as he pleases.* 

738. The Electoral System. — The people do not elect 
directly the President or Vice-President, but vote every four 
years for officers called ''electors." The electors are sup- 
posed to choose the President and Vice-President, but really 
each elector now votes for the candidates selected by his own 
party (§ '^89) ; and whichever party elects most electors, if they 
are a majority of the whole number, elects its candidates. Each 
State chooses as many electors as it has Ivepresentatives and 
Senators together, so that there are, in 1890, 420 electors. 
The Legislature governs the manner of election. In early 
years the State Legislatures generally chose the electors 
themselves; but since 1824 the electors have been chosen by 
a majority vote of the people of the State, f 

739. The President. — The duties of the President are 
summed up in the oath which he takes on entering office, to 
••' preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the 
United States." He appoints such officers as Congress has 
not ordered to be appointed by the Secretaries or the courts. 
He removes incompetent or disobedient officials. In time of 
peace, he and the great army of officials under him are en- 
gaged in carrying into effect the laws of every descrijition 
which Congress has made. If these laws are disobeyed, the 
offenders are seized by the President's marshals and handed 
over to the Federal courts for trial and ])unishnient, the Presi- 
dent retaining the power of reprieve and pardon (except in 

* The cost of all these Departments is now more than Sli>0,0(X).000 a year. This 
expense is met by taxation, paid in various ways hj- all the people of the countrj*. 

t Presidential elections (except the first one. in 17^9) come in tlie years whose 
last two dibits are exactly divisible bj- 4. Tlius.it is easy to remember that the 
year 1824 was a I'resi<lential election year, the number 24 being exactly divisible by 
4; and as the President elect is inaugiirated on the 4th of March of the next year, 
the first and last years of the successive Administrations may be the more easily 
kept in mindt 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 291 

cases of impeachment). If the laws are resisted by force, the 
" war powers" of the President begin to appear. 

740. War Powers. — The President is commander-in-chief 
of the army and navy. Congress makes rnles for the manage- 
ment of tlie army and navy; bnt the President puts the rules 
into effect. If Congress declares Avar, the President directs 
the army and navy in carrying on the war. If an enemy at- 
tacks the country, the President resists the attack in what- 
ever way he thinks best, ordering out the militia of the 
States if the army is not sufficient, but also calling Congress 
together, to give him such further powers as may be neces- 
sary. AVhen the laws are resisted by force of any kind, the 
action of the president is very much the same as if the coun- 
try had been invaded by a foreign enemy. If the resistance 
is to the laws of a State, and the State is not able to suppress 
it, the Governor calls upon the President for assistance. The 
President supports the State with the army; if that is not 
sufficient, lie orders out the militia of other States; if that is 
not sufficient, he summons Congress togetlier, and Congress 
can call out the whole armed force of the country. The whole 
system acts very quietly so long as the resistance is slight, 
and with more and more vigor as resistance becomes stronger 
and more dangerous. 

741. The Yeto Power. — When Congress passes a law, the 
bill, as it is then called, is sent to the President. If he ap- 
proves and signs it, it becomes an Act of Congress, binding 
all persons in the country (see § 744). If the President dis- 
approves the bill and yet keeps it ten days without signing, it 
becomes law just as if he had signed it. If, within ten days, 
he returns it to the House which first passed it, with a state- 
ment of his objections, it cannot become a law unless passed 
over again by a two-thirds vote in each House. This is the 
'' veto power" of the President (Latin, veto, I forbid). If the 
bill has been passed within ten days of the final adjournment 
of Congress, the President may really veto it altogether by not 
returning it. 

742. The Vice-President. — The Vice-President acts as the 



292 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

presiding officer of the Senate. If the President dies, resigns, 
becomes unable to fulfil the duties of his office, or is removed 
by impeachment, the Vice-President becomes President. If 
the Vice-President is dead, or dies after becoming President, 
the Secretaries of the Cabinet succeed to the office in an order 
prescribed l)y Congress (§ G81). 

743. The Judiciary. — The Federal Judiciary consists of a 
Supreme Court provided for by the Constitution, and of Cir- 
cuit and District courts, provided for by Act of Congress. The 
judges of all these courts are appointed by the President, con- 
firmed by the Senate, and cannot be removed except by im- 
peachment (§ 732). Suits are usually brought in the District 
courts first. If the amount involved is large enough, the dis- 
satisfied party may appeal to the Circuit Court, and thence to 
the Supreme Court, whose decision is final. The orders of 
these courts are enforced by the President's marshals; and if 
they are resisted, the whole i)ower of the Executive will en- 
force the laws. 

744. Unconstitutional Laws. — When one person sues an- 
other in a Federal coui-t, it often happens that one of them 
refers to some Act of Congress in his support; and the court 
has to decide the meaning of the Act. It may be that the 
court comes to the conclusion that the subject to which the 
Act relates is one on which the Constitution has given Con- 
gress no power to make laws (§ 734). The court then refuses 
to allow any force to the Act. Other courts imitate it; men 
pay no attention to the Act, as the courts do not enforce it: 
and thus " unconstitutional laws" cease to have any value. 
All this, however, is not a power in Federal courts to " veto" 
Acts of Congress; it is only that the courts are bound to 
obey the Constitution, not Congress. 

745. Inter-State Relations. — Each State must recognize 
the public acts of other States, must allow citizens of other 
States all the privileges of citizens of its own (except that of 
voting), and must give up runaway criminals from other 
States who take refuge in it. The citizen thus has all the 
benefits of a single country; if he journey from Maine to 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 293 

California, he is always and everywhere an American citizen ; 
while the country enjoys the great benefits of a division into 
States. AVhile slavery existed, the States were also bound to 
give up runaway slaves from other States. 

746. Territories and New States. — The Territories are gov- 
erned by Congress; but Congress gives the people of the Ter- 
ritory as much power of self-government as tliey can safely 
exercise (§ 246). The real object of having a Territory is to 
make it a self-governing State as soon as possible. When the 
Territory has a sufficient number of inhabitants, it is ad- 
mitted by Congress as a State, equal in all respects to the other 
States, So Congress can admit part of a State as a new State, 
with the consent of the State from which it is formed. But 
when a State is once admitted, its privileges as a State (its 
" State rights") can never be taken away from it. This is 
not the result of any " sovereign powers" in the State itself, 
but because the whole people of the United States are deter- 
mined that it shall be so, and have expressed their will in 
their Constitution. 

747. Amendments. — Changes or Amendments to the Con- 
stitution must be passed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses 
of Congress, and then ratified or approved by three fourths of 
the State Legislature. There are (in 1890) 44 States; three 
fourths of these are 33; and each of these Legislatures 
has two Houses, like Congress. After an Amendment 
passes Congress, therefoi-e, it must be approved by no less 
than 66 separate legislative bodies ; so that it is a most diffi- 
cult matter to secure the adoption of any change in the Con- 
stitution. H" two thirds of the Legislatures demand of Con- 
gress a second Federal convention, like that of 1787 (§ 252), 
Congress must call the Convention; but any Amendments 
which it passes must still have the approval of three fourths 
of the State Legislatures.* 

748. Tlie Supreme Law. — The Constitution, with the trea- 
ties and Acts of Congress which are not declared by the 



* Tlie Amendments which have been made to the original Constitution are given 
in Appendix. 



294 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Judiciary to be in violation of the Constitution, is to be the 
"supreme law of the land." Not only officials of the United 
States, but all legislative, executive, and judicial officers of 
the different States are sworn and bound, on entering office, 
to support and obey the Constitution of the United States, 
even in direct disobedience to their own State. Even a pro- 
vision of a State constitution is null, void, and no law, if it is 
in conflict with tlie Constitution of the United States. 

749. Success of the Constitution. — Tlie Constitution gave 
the country a governmental system different from anything 
which had been known before; but its features were mainly 
copied from those which the different States liad found by 
experiment to be good. It is a natural growth from the life 
of the States, and their success made the Constitution's suc- 
cess possible. Every other government in the civilized world 
has been changed beyond recognition since 1789; but the 
Constitution of the United States suits the people as well now 
as when it first went into operation, although the country lias 
changed from one of the weakest and poorest to one of the 
richest and most powerful in the world. It is this wonderful 
power of adaptation which has given the strongest testimony 
to the success of the Constitution. 

[Supplementary Reading. — Story's Commentaries on the Constitution 
is still the .stiindard work; lite Fedendist and Wharton's Commenta- 
ries on Americ((n, Ijtw conic next. Governmental forms arc considered 
in De Tociincvillc's liemoeracy in America (translation), ii. 61 foil. A 
book difficult for younger pupils, but very useful, is Politics, by Crane 
and Moses ; another of the same sort is Scott's Development of Constitu- 
tional Libert}/ ; the best short book is Macy's Our Government, or 
Thorpe's Government of the People of the United States. The plan of the 
last-named books, of beginning with the examination of the town in 
which pupils live, is a good one to follow. There are many manuals 
for the closer study of the Constitution ; Andrew's and Alden's maybe 
mentioned. Larger works are the Histories of the Constitution, by Ban- 
croft and Curtis -^ and Von Hoist's and Cooley's treatises on Constitu- 
tional Law. Lamphere's United States Government analyzes the Fed- 
eral system ; and Woodrow Wilson's Congressional Government and 
Tfie State and Dawes's How We are Governed tell just how Congress 
does its work. Salmon's Appoin/inff Power of the President and Knight's 
Electoral System will give the history of these two features of the 
President's ollice. Raleigh's Polilirs nnd Chime's Popular Gorernmeni 
are the best opportunities for comparing the English system with the 
American.] 



APPENDIX I. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

In Congress, July 4, 1776. 
A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNI- 
TED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 

When, iu the coiir.se of buinaii events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to as.sume, among the powers of the ejirth, the separate 
and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God en- 
title them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that 
they should declare the causes which impel them to tlie separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : — That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, de- 
riving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is 
the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new 
government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing 
its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likel}' to effect their 
safety and liappiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments 
long established should not be changed for light and tran.sient causes ; 
and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more dis-. 
posed to sutler while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by 
abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed." But when a long 
train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide 
new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient suffer- 
ance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains 
them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the 
present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usur- 
pations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute 
tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a 
candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and press- 
ing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should 

295 



296 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

be obtiiiued ; and when so suspeuded, he has utterly neglected to attend 
to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of rep- 
resentation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formi- 
dable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 
fortable, and distant from the depository of their jjublic records, for the 
sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
manly tirmness, the invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected, whereby tlie legislative powers, incapable of an- 
nihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the 
State remaining, in the mean time, expo.sed to all the dangers of in- 
vasions from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refus- 
ing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the 
conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent 
to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of 
their othces, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
otficers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without 
the consent of our Legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his 
assent to their acts of j)ret ended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 

F'or protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any mur- 
ders which they should commit on the inliabilants of these States ; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 

For imposing ta.ves on us without our consent ; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benelits of trial by jury ; 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences ; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring pro- 
vince, establisliing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and ht instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; 

F<n' taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, th6 forms of our governments ; 

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves in- 
vested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- 
tection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 



DEOLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



29t 



complete the works of death, desolation aud tyranny, alreadj^ begun 
with circumstances of cruelty aud pertidy scarcely paralleled in the most 
barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of 
their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored 
to bring ou the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian sav- 
ages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of 
all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in 
the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every 
act which may define a tyrant, is unlit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. 
"We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legisla- 
ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have re- 
minded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement 
here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and 
we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow 
these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections 
and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice 
and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity 
which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of 
mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, 
in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name iind by the 
authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and de- 
clare, That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and 
independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
British crown, and that all political connection between them and the 
state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as 
free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude 
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts 
and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the 
support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of 
Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our 
fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and 
signed by tbe following members : — 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Josiah Bartlett, 
William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton . 



MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 

Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, 



JOHN HANCOCK. 

Robert Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

KHODE ISLAND. 

Stephen Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Roger Sherman, 



Samual Huntington, 
William Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. " 



NEW YORK. 



William Floyd. 
Philip Livingston, 
Francis Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 



L>98 



DECLARA TTON OF INDEPENDENCE. 



NEW JEKSKY. 

Ilicliard Stockton, 
John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkiusou, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin Franl\iin, 
John ]\Iorton, 
George Clymer. 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
George Ross. 



UELAWARK. 

Cae.sar Rodney, 
George Read, 
Tliomas M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel Cha.se, 
William Paca, 
Thomas Stone, [rollton 
Charles L'arroll, of Car 



George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harri.son, 
Thomas Nelson , Jr., 



Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Bra.xton. 

NOKTH CAROLINA. 

William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penu. 

t^OUTII CAROLINA. 

.Edward Riitledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jr., 
Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
Arthur Middletou. 

GEORGIA. 

Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
Georjre Walton. 



Resolved, That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assem- 
blies, conventions, and committees, or councils of .safety, and to the 
several commanding otiicers of the continental troops; that it be pro- 
claimed in each of the United States, and at the head of the army. 



APPENDIX II. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

PREAMBLE. 

WE the People of the United States, iu Order to form a more perfect 
Uuion, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for the 
common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings 
of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

Section L 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested 
in a Congress ' of the United States, which shall consist of Legislative 
a Senate and House of Representatives. powers. 

Sec. II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Mem- 
bers chosen every second Year by the People of the sev- House of 
eral States, and the Electors in each State shall have the representa- 
Qualiflcations requisite for Electors of the most numerous tives. 
Branch of the State Legislature. 

3. No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to 
the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citi- onaliflca- 
zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, tions of rep- 
be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen, resentatives. 

3. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective Numbers,'^ which shall be determined by Apportion- 
adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including mentofrep- 
those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding resentatives. 
Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.^ The actual Enu- 
meration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of 
the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of 
ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of 
Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand; but each 

' The body of senators and representatives for each term of two years for which 
representatives are chosen is called one Congress. Each Congress expires at noon 
of the Itli of March next succeeding the beginning of its second regular session, 
when a new Congress begins. 

'' The apportionment under the census of 1880 is one representative to every 
154,325 peisons. 

' This refers to slaves, and is no longer in force (see Amendment XIII.). 

399 



300 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

yiate shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration 
shall be made, the Slate of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse 
three, Massachusetts, eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 
one, Connecticut, live, New York, six, New Jersey, four, Pennsylva- 
nia, eight, Delaware, one, Maryland, six, Virginia, ten, North Caro- 
lina, tive, South Carolina, live, and Georgia, three. 

4. When vacancies happen in tlie Representation from 
Vacancies. j^,jy gtate, tlie Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs 
of Election to till such Vacancies. 

Officers, how 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their 
appoiuted. speaker and other officers,' and shall have the sole Power 
of Impeachment. 

Sec. III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two Senators from each Stale, chosen by the Legislature 
Senate. thereof, for six Years, and each Senator shall have one 

Vote. 

2. Immediately after they .shall be a.ssembled in Consequence of the 

tir.st Election, they shall be divided, as equall}' as may be, 
or'senator^" '"'" ^*'*'<'<'' ^^''-'isses. The Seats of the Senators of the first 

Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second year; 
of the second Class, at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the 
third Class, at the Expiration of the sixiii Year, so that one third may 
be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen, by Resignation 
or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the 
Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next 
Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then till such Vacancies. 

3. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age 
Qualifications of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United 
of senators. States, and wlio shall not, when elected, be an luiiabitant 
of that State for wliich he shall be chosen. 

President of 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be Pres- 
the senate. ident of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be 
equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall chuse their Officers,- and also a president pro tem- 
pore, in the Ab.sence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
the Office of President of the LTnited States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. 
Senate a When sitting for that Purpo.'^c, they .shall be on Oath or 
court for Allirniation. When the President of the United States is 
trial of iin- tried, the (Miief Justice shall preside; and no Person shall 
peachments. |^g convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the 
Members present. 

7. Judgment, in Cases of Impeachment, shall not extend further than 
Judgment in' to removal from Office, and discpialitication to hold and 
case of eon- ' enjo}' any Office of honor, Trust, or Profit, under the 
viction. United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless 
be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment, and Punishment, 
according to Law. 



' Cleric, serpeant-at-arms, door-keeper, and postmaster, and others. The Speaker 
•1 tile presiding officer. 
■•' Secretary, sergeant-at-arnis, door-keeper, and postmaster, and others. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 301 

Sec. IV. 1. The Times. Places, and Manner of holding Elections for 
Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each £|g,ctions of 
State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may, at senatois^aud 
any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except of repiesen- 
as to the Places of ch using Senators. tatives. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the tirst Monday in December, unless Meeting of 
they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Congress. 

Sec. V. 1. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns, 
and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority organiza- 
of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a tion of Con- 
smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may gress. 
be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent jMembers, in such 
Manner and under such Penalties as each House may provide. 

2. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceed- Ruleof pro- 
ings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, ceeding. 
with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. 

3. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time 
to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may, in journal of 
their Judgment, require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays Congress. ^ 
of the Members of either House, on any question shall, at the Desire 
of one fifth of those present, be entered on the Journal. 

4. Neither Hou.se, during the Session of Congress, shall, Adjourn- 
without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than ment of 
three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the Congress. 
two Houses shall be sitting. 

Sec. VI. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a Compen- 
sation' for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid pay and 
out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in privileges of 
all cases, except Treason, Felony, and Breach of the Peace, members, 
be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their 
respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and 
for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned 
in any other Place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil Office, under the plurality 
Authority of the United States, which shall have been of offlce's 
created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been en- prohibited, 
creased, during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the 
United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continu- 
ance in Office. 

Sec. VII. 1. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or Revenue 
concur with Amendments, as on other Bills. bills. 

2. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the Presi- 
dent of the United States. If he approve, he shall sign it. How bills be- 
but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that come laws. 
House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections 
at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such 
Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it 

' The present compensation is $5,000 a year, with twenty cents for every mile of 
travel by the most usually travelled post route to and from the national capital. 



302 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

shall be seut, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which 
it shall likewise be recousidered, and if approved by two thirds of tliai 
House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases tiie Votes of both 
Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the 
Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal 
of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the 
President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it .shall have been 
presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had 
signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, 
in which Case it shall not be a Law. 

3. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote, to which the Concurrence of the 
\uDroval Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (ex- 
arid veto <-"ept ou a question of Adjournment) shall be presented tft 

powers of the the President of the United States; and before the Same 
president. shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being dis- 
approved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House 
of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed 
in the Case of a Bill. 

Sec. VIII. The Congress shall have Power — 
Powers 1- ^o lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts, and Excises, 

ve.sted iu lo pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and 

Congress. general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Im- 
posts, and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States: 

2. To borrow Money on the credit of the United States: 

3. To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes: 

4. To establish a uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws 
on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States: 

5. To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, 
and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures: 

6. To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and 
current Coin of the United States: 

7. To establish Post OtMces and post Roads: 

8. To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing, 
for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their 
respective AVritings and Discoveries: 

9. To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court: 

10. To dctine and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high 
Seas, and oifences against the Law of Nations: 

11. To declare War. grant letters of Marcpie and Reprisal, and make 
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water: 

12. To raise and supjiort Arnnes, but no Appropriation of Money to 
that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years: 

13. To provide and nuiintain a Navy; 

14. To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land 
and naval Forces; ' 

15. To provide for calling forth the INIilitia to execute the Laws of the 
Union, suppress Insurrections, and repel Invjisions; 

1(5. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the ]\Iilitia, 
and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service 
of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint- 
ment of the OlKcers, and the Autliority of training the Militia accord- 
ing to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. -yO'S 

17. To exercise exclusive Legislation, in all Cases whatsoever, over 
such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of 
particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of 
Government of the United States;' and to exercise like Authority over 
all Places purchased bj' the Consent of the Legislature of the State in 
which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, 
Dockyards, and other needful Buildings: And 

18. To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- 
ing into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested 
by this Constitution iu the Government of the United States, or in any 
Department or Officer thereof. 

Sec. IX. 1. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit; shall immigrants 
not be .prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one how admit- ' 
thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or dut3- may ^ed. 
be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each 
Person.'^ 

2. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not Habeas cor- 
be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Inva- pus. 
sion the public Safety maj^ reijuire it. 

S. No Bill of Attainder, or ex po.st facto Law, shall be Attainder, 
passed. 

4. No Capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless 

in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore '^"■^*^' taxes, 
directed to be taken. 

5. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported „ 

from any State. Sdt^' 

6. No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of duties. 
Commerce or Revenue, to the Ports of one State over those 

of another: nor shall Ves.sels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged 
to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. 

7. No IVIoney shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Moneys, how 
Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regu- drawn. 

lar Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all 
public Money shall be published from time to time. 

8. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United Titles of 
States: and no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust nobility 
under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, prohibited, 
accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title of any kind what- 
ever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. 

Sec. X. 1. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Con- 
federation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin pov.ersof 
Money; emit Bills of Credit: make Anything but Gold states 
and Silver coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any ciefi"*"'!- 
Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation 
of Contracts; or grant any Title of Nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- 
posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutel}^ 
necessary for executing its inspection Laws; and the net Prodr.ceof all 



1 The District of Columbia (§ 291). 

" This has reference to the foreign slave trade (§ 896). 



304 COJS'sTITUriON OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Duties aud Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be 
for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws 
shall be subject to the Revision and Coulroul of the Coni^ress. No 
State shall, without the Consent of Congress, la}' any Duty of Tonnage, 
keep Troops or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agree- 
ment or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or en- 
gage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as 
will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

Section I. 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President 
Executive ^^ ^^^ United States of America. 

power, in He shall hold his Office during the Terra of four Years, 

whom vested. aQ(j^ together with the Vice-President, chosen for t<je same 
Term, be elected as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Num- 
Electors. ^^j. ^^ Senators and Representatives to which the State 

may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator, or Representative, or 
Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States 
shall be appointed an Elector. 

[3. The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 

Ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not be 

of e^moi^iP ^" Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they 

^ *^ ^' gjjall make a List of all the Persons voted for, aud of the 
Number of Votes for each ; which List they .shall .sign and certify, and 
transmit, sealed, to the Seat of the government of the United States, 
directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate 
shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open 
all the Certiticates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person 
having the greatest Niuiiber of Votes shall be the President, if such 
Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors a]>pointed; and 
and of house i^ there be more than one who have such ^lajority. and have 
of represen- an equal Number of Votes, thcTi the House of Representa- 
tatives. tives shall immediately chuse, b> Ballot, one of them for 

President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five high- 
est on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the Presi- 
dent. But in chusiiig the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, 
the Representation from each State having one vote; A quorum for this 
Purpose shall consist of a ^lember or Members from two thirds of the 
States, and a Majority of all the States .shall be necessary to a Choice. 
In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the 
greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. 
But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the 
Senate shall chuse from th(?m by Ballot the Vice-President.] ' 
Time of 4- The Congress may determine the Time of chusing 

choosing the Electors, and the Day on which the}- shall give their 

electors. Voles; which Day shall be the same throughout the 

United States."^ 

> This clause, within brackets, has been superseded by the 12th Amenilnient. 
See p. 310. 
' The electors are chosen on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in Koveni- 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 305 

5. No parson, except a natural boru Citizen, or a Citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the Adoption of tliis Constitution, ouaiiflca- 
shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall tionsofthe 
any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have at- pi'esident. 
tained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resi- 
dent vfithin the United States. 

6. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his 
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers Resort in 
and Duties of the sjiid Office, the Same shall devolve ou case of his 
the Vice-President, and the Congress may by Law pro- disability, 
vide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of 
the President and Vice-President, declaring what Officer shall then act 
as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability 
be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a 
Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor di- 
minished during the Period for which he shall have been prls^J^t**^^ 
elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any 

other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.- 

8. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the 
following Oath or Affirmation : — 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
Office of President of the United States, and will to the 
best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Con- 
stitution of the United States." 

Sec. II. 1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual Service of the United 
States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the prin- p,I^sMe°V^* 
cipal Officer, in each of the executive Departments, upon 
any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he 
shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against 
the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. 

3. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the 
Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice 
and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, treaties^ an- 
other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme point am- 
Court, and all other Officers of the United States whose bassadors. 
Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and -"^ ^^^' 
which shall be established b}^ Law: but the Congress may by Law vest 
the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the 
President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 

3. The President shall have Power to till up all Vacancies that may 
happen during the Recess of the Senate, bj^ granting Com- May fill 
missions which shall expire at the End of their next Session, vacancies. 

Sec. III. 1. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- 

ber preceding ttie expiration of a presidential term, and vote for president and 
vice-president on the first Wednesday of the December following:. The votes are 
eoimtt'd and declared in Congress the second Wednesday of the following February. 
> The salary of the president was $25,000 a year until 1872, when it was increased 
to foO,000. Tiiat of the vice-president is $8,000 a year. 



306 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

mation of the State of the Uuion, and recommend to their Consideration 
such Measures as he sliall judge necessary and expedient ;' he may, on 
May convene extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of 
Congress. them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, witii 
Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such 
Time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive Ambassadors and other 
public Ministers ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully exe- 
cuted, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. 

Sec. IV. 1. The President, Vice-President, and all civil Officers of 
I low officers ^^^" United Slates, shall be removed from Office on Impeach- 
iiiaybere- meut for, and Conviction of, Treason, Briber}', or other 
moved. high Crimes aud jMisdemeauors. 



ARTICLE III. 



Section I. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be 
Judicial vested in one supreme Court, aud in such inferior Courts 

power, how as the Congress may from time to time ordain and estab- 
vested. ]ish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, 

shall hold their Offices during good behaviour, and sliall, at stated 
Times, receive for their Services a Compensation, wiiich shall not be 
diminished during their Continuance in Office. 

Sec. II. 1. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and 
Equity, arising imder this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their 

cases k .Vutliority ;— to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other 

extends. public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty 

and maritime Juri.sdictiou ;— to Controversies to whicli the United 
States shall be a Party ;— to Controversies between two or more States ; 
— between a State and Citizens of another State ;-— between Citizens of 
different Stales ;— between Citizens of the same Slate claiming Lands 
under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens 
thereof, and foreign Slates. Citizens, or Svibjecls. 

2. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- 

, ■ ■• »• suls, and those in which a State sliall be a Party, the su- 

.lunsdiction ■^"■'. "■ . , ,, , • • i t • i- .• -11141 

..ftliesu- preme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the 
lireni" court, other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall 
have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Excep- 
tions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. 

3. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be 

by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the Stale where 
respecting the said Crimes shall have been committed ; but when 
trials. not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such 

Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. 



' The president does this in messages at the opening of each session. Washing- 
ton and .Tohn Adams read their messages in person to both houses of Congress. 
.Jefferson introduced the present practice of sending to the two houses a written 



message by his private secretary. 
" See Amendments, Art. XI 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 307 

Sec. III. 1. Treason agaiust the United States, shall consist only 
in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Ene- 
mies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be defined' 
convicted of Treason, unless on the Testimony of two Wit- 
nesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. 

2. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of 
Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corrup- 
tion of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the ^aYshed 
Person attainted. 



ARTICLE IV. 



Section I. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to 
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every 
other State. And the Congress may bj' general laws pre- ^'atesf 
scribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records, and Pro- 
ceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. 

Sec. II. 1. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled . 
to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several of 'Jjt^fnl 
States. 

3. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other 
Crime, who shall flee from Justice and be found in an- Executive 
other State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority requisitions. 
of the State from wliich he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the 
State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.' 

3. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of lq^^ regulat- 
any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such ing service 
Service or Labour ; but shall be delivered up on Claim of or labor, 
the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.'- 

Sec. III. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new States shall be formed or erected -^^^ states 
within the Jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be how foimed 
formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of aud admitted. 
States, without the Con.sent of the Legislatures of the States concerned 
as well as of the Congress. 

3. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need- 
ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other p,^^,^^ of 
Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in Congress 
this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any over public 
Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. lands. 

Sec. IV. 1. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall pro- Republican 
tect each of them against Invasion, aud on Application of government 
the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature guaranteed, 
cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. 



« See also § 422. ^ gee | 463, 



808 CONSTITUTION OF TEE UNITED STATES. 

ARTICLE V. 

1. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose Amendmeuts to this Constitution, or, on tlie 
Constitution, Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several 
how to be ' States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, 
amended. which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Pur- 
poses, as Part of this Constitution, when ratilied by the Legislatures of 
three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths 
thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed 
by the Congress; provided, that no Amendment which may be made 
prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any 
Manner alfect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the 
first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived 
of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VL 

Validity of 1- ^^^ Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, 

debts recog- before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid 
nized. against the United Suites under this Constitution as under 

the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall 
Supreme law ^^ made in Pursuance thereof; and nil Treaties made, or 
of the land which shall be made, under the Authority of the United 
defined. States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the 
Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Con- 
stitution or Laws of anj^ State to the Contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the ^lem- 
bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Offi- 
o th- f cers, both of tiie United States and of the several States, 
whom re- shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Con- 
quired, and stitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a 
for what. Qualification to any ()tfice or public Trust under the United 
States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

1. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, 
Ratification, ^j^^^jj ^^ sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution 
between the States so ratifying the Same.' 

DoNK in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present 
the Seventeenth Da^^ of Sejitembcr in the Year of our Lord one 
thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the Independence 
of the United States of* America the Twelfth. In witness where- 
of. We have hereunto subscribed our Names.' 

GEO. WASHINGTON, 
Presidt. and deputy from Virginia. 

' See § 254. 

' The number of delegates chosen to the convention was sixty-five; ten did not 
attend; sixteen declined signing the Con.^titution, or left the convention before it 
was ready to be signed. Thirty-nine sijjned. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



309 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

John Laugdon, 
Nicholas Gilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel Gorham, 
Rufus King. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Wm. Saml. Johnson, 
Roger Sherman. 



VIRGINIA. 

John Blair, 
James Madison, Jr. 



NEW YORK. John Dickinson, 

Alexander Hamiltou.Ricbard Bassett, 
Jaco: Broom. 

NEW JERSEY. 

Wil. Livingston, Maryland. 

David Breavley, James M'Henry, 

Wm. Paterson, ~ '" 

Joua. Dayton. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

B. Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robt. Morris, 
Geo: Clymer, 
Tho: Fitzsimons, 
Jared IngersoU, 
James Wilson, 
Gouv: Morris. 

DELAWARE. 

Geo: Read, 

Gunning Bedford Jun'r, Charles" °C o t e s w o r t h 



NORTH CAROLINA. 

Wm. Blount, 

Rich'd Dobbs Spaight, 

Hu. Williamson. 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 

J. Rutledge, 



Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 



GEORGIA. 



Dan: of St. Thos. Jenifer, William Few, 
Danl. Carroll. Abr. Baldwin. 

Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, Secreta/ry. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 

'Art. I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridg- Freedom in 
ing the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of religion, 
the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Gov- speech,press. 
ernment for a redress of grievances. 

Art. II. A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of 
a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms 
shall not be infringed. Mihtia. 

Art. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any 
house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of 
war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Soldiers. 

Art. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches Search 
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall warrants, 
issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and 
particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things 
to be seized. 

Art. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, 
when in actual service, in time of War or public danger; nor Capital 
shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice crimes, 
put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any Criminal 
Case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or 

1 The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789, and declared adopted in 1791. 



310 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

property, withoul due process of law ; uor shall private property be 
taken for public use, without just compensation. 

Art. VI. In all crimiual prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the 
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and 
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district 
Trial by shall have been previously a.scertaiiied by law, and to be 

jury- informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be 

confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process 
for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the Assistance of Coun- 
sel for his defence. 

Art. VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy 
Suits at com- shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by Jury shall 
inon law. be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise 
re-examined in any Court of the United States than according to thf 
rules of the common law. 

Bail, fines, Art. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, uor 

f^tc. excessive tines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments 

inflicted. 

Certain Art. IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of cer- 

rights. tain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage 

others retained by the people. 

Powers Art. X. The powers not delegated to the United States 

reserved. by the Constitution, nor piohibited by it to the States, are 
reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 
Judicial 'Art. XI. The Judicial power of the United States 

power shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or 

limited. ecjuity, commeuced or prosecutedagainst one of the United 

States, by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any 
Foreign State. 

*Art. XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and 
vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; 
Amendment they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
Sec^'4" ^^"' President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as 
'respecting Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all per- 
electionof sons voted for as Pre.sident, and of all jn-rsons voted for as 
aiid^Wce^ Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which 

president. Usts they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the 
seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the 
President of the Senate ; — the President of the Senate shall, in the pres- 
ence of the Senate and House of Kepresentatives, open all thecertiticates, 
and the votes shall then be counted ; — the person having the greatest 
number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be 
a majority of the whole number of Electors a|)pointed ; and if no person 
have such majority, then frcjm the persons having the highest numbers, 
not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as Presi(lent. the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. 
But in choosing the President, the votes sh.nli be taken by states, the rep- 
resentation from each state having one vole ; a ((Uorum for this purpose 
shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and 

' The eleventh amendment was proposed in 1T04, and declared adopted in 1798. 
" The twelfth amendment was proposed in 1803, iiud declared adopted in 1804. 



(JONBTITUTIOH^ OF THE UNITED STAT£!S. 311 

a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the 
House of Represeutatives shall not choose a President, whenever the 
right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March 
next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the 
case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The 
person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be 
the VicePresident,"if such number be a majority of the whole number 
of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the 
two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi- 
dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole 
number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be neces- 
sary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
President, shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

'Art. XIII. Sec. I. Neither slavery nor involuntary 
servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the ^ avery. 
party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United 
States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

■^Aht. XIV. Sec. I. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 
States and of the Stale wherein they reside. No State shall make or en- 
force any law which shall aliridge the privileges or immunities of citi- 
zens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, 
liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person 
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laM's. 

Sec. II. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President 
and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
the E.xecutive or Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legis- 
lature thereof, is denied to an}' of the male inhabitants of such State, 
being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in 
any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, 
the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole num- 
ber of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Sec. III. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Ck)n- 
gress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold an}' office, civil 
or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having 
previously taken an oatli, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of 
the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an 
executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution 
of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion 
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But 
Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each House, remove such 
disability. 

Sec. IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, au- 
thorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 



> The thirteenth amendment was proposed and adopted in t86.5 (§ 620). 

* The fourteenth amendment was proposed in 1866, and adopted in 1868 (§ 625). 



312 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not 
be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume 
or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of 
any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held 
illegal and void. 

Sec. V. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

'Art. XV. Sec. I. The right of citizens of the United States to 
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any 
State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. II. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

1 The fifteenth amendment was proposed in 1869, and adopted in 18T0 (§ 636j. 



APPENDIX 111. 



FORMATION OF STATES. 

1. Delawcare ratifled the Constilutiou Dec. 7 

2. Peuusylvauia " " Dec. l'^ 

3. New Jersey " " Dec. 18 

4. Georgia " " Jau. 2 

5. Conuecticut " " Jan. 9 

6. Massachusetts '• " Feb. 6 

7. Maryland " " Apr. 28 

8. South Carolina " " May 28 

9. New Hampshire" " . . .June 21 

10. Virginia " " June 25 

11. New York " " July 26 

12. North Carolina " " Nov. 21 

13. Rhode Island " " May 29 

14. Vermont admitted to the Union j\Iar. 4 

15. Kentucky " " June 1 

16. Tennessee " "• June 1 

17. Ohio " " Nov. 2!) 

18. Louisiana " " Apr. 30 

19. Indiana " " Dec. 11 

20. Mississippi " " Dec. 10 

21. Illinois " " ... Dec. 3, 

22. Alabama " " Dec. 14 

23. Maine " " Mar. 15 

24. Missouri " " Aug. 10 

25. Arkansas " " June 15 

26. Michigan " " Jan. 26 

27. Florida " " Mar. 3 

28. Te.vas " " Dec. 29 

29. Iowa " " Dec. 28 

30. Wisconsin " " May 29 

31. California " " Sept. 9 

32. Minnesota " " May 11 

33. Or<-gon " " Feb. 14 

34. Kansas " " .Jan. 29 

35. West Virginia " " Junel9 

36. Nevada " " Oct. 31 

37. Nebraska " " Mar. 1 

38. Colorado " " Aug. 1 

39. North Dakota " " Nov. 3 

40. South Dakota " " Nov. 3 

41. Montana " " Nov. 8 

42. Washington '• " Nov. 11 

43. Idaho " " July 3 

44. Wyoming " " July 7 



1787 
1787 
1787 
1788 
17^8 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1789 
1790 
1791 
1793 
1796 
1803 
1813 
1816 
1817 
1818 
1819 
18'20 
1821 
]8;:56 
1837 
1845 
1845 
1846 
1848 
1850 
1858 
1859 
1861 
18C3 
1864 
1867 
1876 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 



814 



GROWTH OF THE STATES. 









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APPENDIX YI. 



EXTRACTS FROM WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL AD 
DRESS TO THE AMERICAN PEOPLE: 

Sept. 17, 1796. 

Friends and Fellow-Citizens: — The period for a new election of a 
citizen to administer the executive government of the United States be- 
ing not far distant, it appears to me proper that I should now apprise 
you of the resolution which I have formed, to decline being considered 
among the number of those out of whom a choice is to be made. In 
looking forward to the moment which is intended to terminate my pub- 
lic life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledg- 
ment of that debt of gratitude which I owe to ray beloved country for 
the many honors it has conferred upon me ; still more for the steadfast 
contidence with which it has supported me, and for the opportunities I 
have thence enjoyed of manifesting my attachment by services faithful 
and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. If benefits 
have resulted to our country from these services, let it always be remem- 
bered to your praise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that 
the constancy of your support was the essential prop of the efforts, and 
of the plans by which they were effected. Here, perhaps, I ought to 
stop ; but solicitude for your welfare urges me to offer to your solemn 
contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some senti- 
ments which appear to me all-important to your felicity as a people. 

Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your 
hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to confirm the attach- 
ment. The unity of government, which constitutes you one people, is 
also now dear to you. It is justly so ; for it is a main pillar in the edi- 
fice of your real independence — the support of your tranquillity at home, 
your peace abroad, of your safetj^ of your prosperity, of that very lib- 
erty which you so highly prize. While, then, every part of our country 
feels an interest in the Union, all the parts combined cannot fail to find 
greater strength, greater resource, greater security from external danger, 
a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations, and an 
exemption from wars between themselves. Hence, likewise, they will 
avoid the necessity of those overgrown military establishments, which 
are particularly hostile to republican liberty. In this sense it is that your 
union ought to be considered as the main prop of your liberty. 

Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, 
religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that 

317 



318 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 

man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor to subvert these 
groat pillars of human happiness. The mere politician, equally with 
The pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them. 

Promote, as an object of primar)- importance, institutions for the gen- 
eral diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the strucline of a gov- 
ernment gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion 
should be enlightened. 

As a very inVportant .'^oiuce of .strength and security, cherish public 
credit. One method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as possible, 
avoiding the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning occasions of 
e.xpen.se, Init by vigorous exertions in time of peace to discharge the 
del)ts wliich unavoidable wars may have occasioned. 

The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is in 
extending our commercial relations, to have with them as WiiXa jwUticul 
connection as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, 
let them be fultilled wilh perfect good faith. Here let us stop. It is 
our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of 
the foreign world. 

Tiiough, in reviewing the incidents of my administration. I am un- 
conscious of intentional errors, I am nevertheless too sensible of my de- 
fects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. 
Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or 
mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me 
the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indul- 
gence; and that, after forty-live years of my life dedicated to its service 
wilh an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be con- 
signed to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest. Re- 
lying on its kindness, and actuated by that fervent love towards it wliich 
is so natural to a man who views in it the native .soil of himself and his 
progenitors for several generations, I anticipate with pleasing expecta- 
tion that retreat in whicli I promise myself to realize the sweet enjoy- 
ment of i)artaking, in the midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign in- 
fluence of good laws under a free government— the ever favorite object 
of my heart, and the happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, la- 
bors, and dangers. G. WASiiiNGroN 

UNrrKD States. ITth Septeiulier. 179(1. 

[The above is but a small portion of this celebrated address, and has 
been abbreviated with the purpose of enabling the pupil to imderstand 
something of Washington's advice to him] 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



XoTE.— The references are to Sections, not to Pages. 

.b'<. and Foit are considered parts of the reference name : de and von are not 
Thus, look for St. Louis under the letter S; for Fort Sumter under F; for de Grasse 
under G; for von Steuben under S. 

The pronunciation is indicated in all fairly doubtful cases, and the characters 
which indicate it have been made as few and simple as possible. Pronounce a as 
in mate, e as in mete, i as in mite, 6 as in mote, u as in mute : a as in bag, e as in 
beg, i as in big, 6 as in bog, u as in bug ; a with the obscure sound of a in idea : ah 
as a in father ; aw as in saw ; ow as in cow ; oo as in foot ; ch as in chamber ; g 
always hard, as in get, j being used for the soft sound of g. Italic e is silent, but 
shows that the vowel preceding it in the same syllable is loujr. In French names, 
the capital letters h and r are to be pronounced more forci lily than we are ac- 
customed to pronounce them in English. An(g) is the French nasal sound ; it is 
uttered vei-y much as spelled, except that it stops before tlie sound of ng is quite 
completed. Letters not mentioned here, or unmarked, are to be pronounced as 
they would be in an English word. 



Abolitionists, first appearance of, 389; 
attacks on. 414. 

Abraham, Plains of. Que., battle on, 14-3. 

Acadia (a-ka'dia), settled by De Monts. 
14; British capture of. 140; exile of 
French colonists, 140. 

Adams, Charles Francis, nominated for 
Vice-president by Free-Soil Party, 456. 

Adams, John, delegate to Continental 
Congress, 171 ; defends Declaration of 
Independence, 186, note; death, 186, 
note; elected Vice-president, 265, 279; 
elected President, 279; career as Presi- 
dent, 382. 

Adams, John Quincy, in Monroe's Cabi- 
net. 347; elected President, 361; admin- 
istration of, 362-366; renominated for 
President, 367. 

,\dams, Samuel, delegate to Contmental 
Congress, 171. 

"Adams men." afterwards National 
Republican Party. 366. 

Africa, early exploration in, 4. 9. 

Agricultural Depfirtment, 737. 

Agricultural machinery, its poor con- 
dition in 1790.2.59; inventions in, 377; 
effect of invention on Western lands, 
377; influence of, 491. 

Agriculture, condition of early New 
England, 63; difficulties in 1790, 259; 
prosperity in 18S1. 674. 

Alabama (al o-l)ah'ma), early explora- 
tions in. 8; formation of State. 246; 
paucity of population in 1812. 321 ; ad- 
mitted, 350; secession, .501, 513; read- 
mitted. 625. 

Alabama, the, equipment. .551: ravages 
of, 551, 569; sunk by the Keursarge, 590. 

Alabama claims, decision of the, 649. 
650. 



Alaska, purchase of, 632. 

Albany (awl'bo-nii. N. Y., early Dutch 
settlement, 103: Dutch name of, 109: 
meeting of Colonial delegates at. 139: 
plan of union. Ir,'.). 

Albemarle (al-be-niarP). a Virginian set- 
tlement in North Carolina, 83. 

Albemaile Sound, southern limit of Se- 
bastian Cabofs explorations, 10. 

Alert, the, captured by American navy, 
333, note. 

Algiers (al-jeerz'). piracies of, 300. 

Alien laws, 28(). 

Alleghanies (al'le-ga-nlz), boimdary of 
settled country in 1789, 263. 

Allen, Ethan, captures Ticonderoga, 179. 

Altamaha (al-ta-mo-haw') River, defeat 
of Spaniards on, 96. 

Amendments to Constitution, objects 
and adoption of first ten. 268; adop- 
tion of the Twelfth, 289; ratification 
of the Thirteenth. 619. 620; adoption 
of Fourteenth, 624, 625; adoption of 
Fifteenth, 636; how passed, 747. 

America, discovery of, 2; origin of the 
name, 6; Spanish, 7. 

American Party, rise of , 475 and note: 
defeated in 1856. 482: nominations in 
1860, 499. 

Amei'ican System. Clay and Adams 
unite protective tariff and internal im- 
provements under this title, 362: op- 
position to, .363, .365; opposed b}' Jack- 
son, 395. 

Anarchists (an'ar-kists), riots in Chicago, 
686. 

Anderson, Major Robert, in command at 
Foit Sumter, .505; surrender of, 500. 

Andersonville. Ga., sufferings of Union 
prisoners at. 594. 

319 



320 



PRONOUNCINQ INDEX. 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Andr6 (an'drl), Major John, execution 
of, 215. 

Andros (an'drose). Sir Edmund, pro- 
ceedings at Hartford, 51; appointed 
governor of New England colonies, 
,59; tyranny, 59; seized and sent to 
England. 59. 

Annapolis (an-nap'o-lls). Md., settle- 
ment, 76; first attempt to hold Federal 
Convention at, 251; naval school estab- 
lished at, J31. 

Antietam (an-te'tam), Md., battle of, 546, 
601). 

Anti-Federal Party, its origin, 254; dis- 
appearance of, 272. 

Anti-rent disturbances, 429. 

Anti-slavery Society, formation of, 389 

Appomattox (ap-po-mat'tocks),'Va,, sur- 
render at, 601. 

Argus, the. captured by British, 33.3,note. 

Arizona Territory, part of the Mexican 
territory, 444. 

.Arkansas (ar'kan-saw), early explora- 

.(tioiis in. 8; formed out of Louisiana 
territory, 301. note; admitted, 381; 
secession, 512, 513; Confederate relin- 
quishment of, 5J9; readmitted, 625. 

Arrav, discontant in, 211; disbanded in 
1783 without just treatment, 237; in- 
efficiency in 1812, 322; disbandment 
in 186>. 60i, 617. 

Armv of Potomac (po-to'-mak\ organi- 
zation of. 518; increasing the, 5.53; in 
battle of GJttysburgh, 5o4; in the Wil- 
derness. 573. > 

Arnold. Benedict, in invasion of Can- 
ada. 180; defence of Fort Schuyler. 199; 
traason of. 215; his fate, 215; ravages 
Virginia. 227. 

Arthur. Chester A., elected Vice-pres- 
ident, 670; becomes President by 
death of Garfleld. 671. 

Articles of Confederation, ratified by 
the States. 213; dissatisfaction with. 
247; found to be worthless, 247, 2)8; 
impossibility of amending, 248; suc- 
ceed3l by Constitution, 251. 

Assemblies, law-making bodies of the 
colonies. 12 >; effect on Revohition, 
120; that of Virginia the first, 37, 71, 
12), note; action in regard to Stamp 
Act, 155; uneasy times in, 157. 

Astor Library. 492. 

Asylums. 709. 

Atlanta, Ga., .Johnston's position at, .578; 
captured 580, 60S; Exposition at, 674. 

Avon, the, captured by ^ American 
navy, 3-33, note. 

Azores (azorz'), the, 18. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, his rebellion and 
death, 73. 

Bahama (ba-ha'ma) Islands, discov- 
ered by Columbus, 5. 

Ballot reform. ('iP3. 

Baltimore (bawl'tl-more'l Md., settle- 
ment, 76; beats oft the British, 328; 



fight with 6th Massachusetts Militia 
in. 510; threatened by Lee, 545. 

Baltimore and Ohio RR., early scheme 
for horse operation, 3<iH. 

Bancroft. George, literary work of, 386. 

Bank of United States, first one char- 
tered. 267, 273; second chartered, 341; 
overthrown by Jackson. 393. 

Banks, rise of, 280: wildcat. 406; in- 
crease in 18.')0, 467; miprovement 
during Pierce's administration. 469. 

Banks, Gen. N. P., position in Shen- 
andoah Valley, 537; confronted and 
beaten by Jackson, .541,. 542; assigned 
to attack Port Hudson, 5.56; Red 
River expedition, .5S6. 

Baptists, persecution of, 41. 

Barbary States, professional pirates, 
300; beaten into peace by the navy, 300. 

Beauregard ibo-re-gard'). Gen. P. G. 
T., headquarters of. 513; at Manas- 
sas Junction. 516. 

Bell, John, nominated for Pre.sident. 499. 

Bemis Heights N. Y., battle of, 200. 

Benevolence. 709. 

Bennington, Vt . battle of. 199. 

Berkeley (berk'll). Lord John, a pro- 
prietor of New Jersey. 110 

Berkeley, Governor William, bangs 
leaders of Bacon's Rebellion, 73. 

Berlin Decree, the. 3<i9. 

Black Hawk War, the, 3S2. 

Blaine, James G., nominated for Pres- 
ident, 678. 

Blair, Frank P., nominated for Vice- 
president, 628. 

Blockade, right to. 308 : of 1813, 326; 
of southern ports in 1861,511; strin- 
gency of. 548. 562. rm. 

Blockade runners, dependence of Con- 
federate States on, 520. 

Blockade rimuing, ended at Mobile, 
587. 

lionhomme Rkliard (bo-nom' re-shaR'), 
the, fight with the Scidpis, 218. 

Books, early scarcity of. 3. 

Boone, Daniel, 213. 

Booth, John Wilkes, assassinates Lin- 
coln, 613; death of, 613. 

Boston. Mass., settlement. 39; massacre 
in. 157; the tea party. 1.59; British meas- 
ures against traiie of. 160; British 
troops in. 163; sie<:e. 167; evacuation, 
178: Washington's entrv, 178; popu- 
lation in 1790, 2.58; lire of, 6.53. 

Boxer, the, captured by American navy, 
3:3.3, note. 

"Boycott," an early. 1.56. 162. 

Braddock, Gen., defeated and killed, 
140. 

Bradford. William, governor of Plym- 
outh Colony, 36. 

Bragg. Gen. Braxton, supplants Beaure- 
gard, 520; advances on Kentucky, 
.526; raid of. 548; defeats Rosecraus 
at Chlckamauga. 559; position at Chat- 
tanooga, 560; defeated. 560. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



321 



J^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Brandywine, Pa., battle of, 195. 

Breckinr'idge, John C, elected Vice- 
presideiii, 482; nominated for Pres- 
ident. 499. 

Breed's Hill, Mass., fortification of, 176. 

Breion, Cape (brifn), English discovery 
at, 10. 

Bridges, early lack of, 261; improve- 
ment during Pierce's adniinistraiion, 
469. 

Bi'istol, Eng., American discoveries 
from, 10. 

British America, 10; limitations of name, 
10. noie. 

British troops, expedition against New 
York, J8T. 

Brooklyn, N. Y., defeat of Americans at, 
188. 

Brown, B. Gratz, nominated for Vice- 
president, 642. 

Brown. Gen. Jacob, reorganizes the 
army, 325. 

Brown, John, raid in Virginia, and exe- 
cution. 497. 

Bry.Tnt, W. C^, literary work of, 386. 

Buchanan (buk-aii'aii), James, elected 
President, 482; his administration. 
484-500. 

Buell. Gen. D. C, success at Mill Spring, 
523; movement to join Grant. 528; 
nnion with Grant at Pittsburgh 
Landing, 524; assumes command, 525; 
advances to meet Bragg, 526. 

Bueua Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah), battle 
of, 445. 

Bull Run. Va.. battle of. .516. 

Bunker Hid, Mass., battle of, 176; monu- 
ment, 176, note. 

Burgoyne, (bur-goin'), Sir John, move- 
ment against New York. 197; cap- 
tures Ticonderoga, 197; defeated at 
Bennington, 199; surrender of, 201. 

Burlington, N. J., settlement. 111. 

Burnside, Gen. Ambrose, in Fredericks- 
burgh campaign, 536, 547; assumes 
command, 546. 

Burr, Aaron, elected Vice-president, 
288; shoots Hamilton. 299; his Mis- 
sissippi expedition, ;307; trial for 
treason, 307. 

Butler, William O , nominated for Vice- 
president, 4.56. 

Buzzard's Bay, Mass., Gosnold's fort at, 
18. 

Cabinet, the, 737. 

Cabot (kal)'ot), John and Sebastian, 
voyages of, 10; English claim to terri- 
tory through discoveries of, 130. 

Calhoun (kal-hoon'j, John ('., in Mon- 
roe's Cabinet, 347; elected Vice-presi- 
dent, 361: le-eleeted, 367; leader in 
South Carolina, 398; his doctrine of 
nullification, 400. 

California. Spanish expeditions to, 7; 
se zed by American forces, 443; part 
of the Mexican territory, 444; dis- 



covery of gold, 457; rapid Increase 
of population, 458; dilificidty of ad- 
mission, 461; admitted, 462; anii-Chi 
nese riots, 068; extent of territory, 699. 

Calvert, Cecil (sis'il kol'vert), receives 
patent for the colony of Maryland, 
75. 

Calvert, Sir George, plans to found a 
col iny to be a refuge for Roman Cath- 
olics, 75 

Calvert, Leonard, brings settlers to 
Blaryland, 76. 

Cambridge (kame'brij), Mass., settle- 
ment, 39; Washington's headquarters, 

Camden, S. C, battle of, 221. 

Canada, French discoveries in, 11; 
French settlements, 13; British con- 
questof, 61. 138,144; western, explored 
by Champlain. 132; American inva- 
sions of, IW. 325; boundary of United 
States in 1783, 236; fishery disputes, 
G50, 680. 

Canals, early, 280; construction by va- 
rious States, 358; the American Sys- 
tem, 362. 

Canary Islands, the, 5. 

Canonicns (ka-non'I-kus), Indian chief, 
gives Rogei- Williams tract of land, .52. 

Capital of the United States, at Phila- 
delphia, 267; moved to Washington, 
291. 

Carolina, formation of colony, 26; origin 
of name, 26, note, 80; granted to eight 
proprietors, 80; government, 81 ; divi- 
sion of, 82. 

Carteret (kar-ter-ef). Sir George, pro- 
prietor of New Jersey, 110. 

earlier, Jacques (zhak kaa'te-a), dis- 
covers St. Lawrence River, 11; founds 
Quebec. 13. 

Cai'ver, John, first governor of Plym- 
outh Colony, 36. 

Cass, Lewis, nominated for President, 
456. 

Catholics, Roman, formation of colony 
for, 75; ill-treated in Maryland, 78. 

Cavaliers, 31. 

Cedar Cieek, Va., battle of. 577. 

Cemetery Ridge, Union position at Get 
tysburgh, 55-1. 

Census: first (1790^,257; second (1800).292: 
third (1810), 320; fourth (1820), 319; fifth 
(1830), 380; sixth (1840), 413: seventh 
(1850), 467; eighth (I860.) 486; ninth 
(1870), 6.52; tenth (1880), 660 

Centennial, anniversary of Declaration 
of Independence, 6.55. 

Cerro Gordo (scr'ro goR'do), battle of, 
447. 

Chad's Ford, Pa., battle at, 195. 

Champlain (sham-plane), Samuel de, 
founds settlements, 14; discoveries of, 
132. 

Champlain, Lake, discovery of, 132; Mac- 
donough's victory on, 334. 

Chancellorsville, Va., battle of, 552, 607. 



322 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Chapultepec (chah-pool'ta-pek), battle 
of, 445. 

Charitable associations, 709. 

Chai-lfS I , illegal taxation by, 30; exe- 
cution of, 31; issues cliarter to Massa- 
cliusetis Bay Colony, 38. 

('harles II., restoration of, 32; grants 
of, 80, 113. 

Cliailes'ton, S. C, attacked by British 
fleet. 183; capture of. 222; retaine'l by 
Britisli; 22y; vacated by British. 337; 
population in 1790, 2.58; nullification as 
applied to Charleston harbor, 401: 
blockade-running from, 533; blockade 
of, .588. 

Chariest own. Mass.. settlement, 38. 

Charter colonies, 29. 

Chaiter Oak, 51. 

Cliarters, of Connecticut, 50; of Rhode 
Island, .53. 

Chattanooga, fchattf/-noo'ga\ Tenn., 
Union army shut up in, ,559. 

Cherbourg CsharebooR'), naval engage- 
ment off. .590. 

Cherry Valley, N. Y., massacre at, 209. 

Chesapeake (olies'o-peek), the, insulted 
by the Leopard, 310; captured by the 
ShantiO)!, 333. 

Chesapeake Hay, 24; Howe's expt'dition 
to, 194; useii by Washington as a 
route to York town, 233; the British 
fleet in. 328. 

Chester, Pa., settlement. 115. 

Chicago (shl-kaw'go). III., rapid rise of. 
379; fire of, b.53; railroad riots, 662; 
anarchistic riots. 686. 

Chickahoniiny (chik-((-honi'In-T) River, 
battles on, 540; reached by Grant, .574. 

Chickainnuga (ehik-a-maw'ga), Ga., bat- 
tle of. ,559. 607. 

Chickasaws (cliik'n-sawz), the. 6, note. 

China, treaty of 1880. 1168. 

Chinese imniifrration. 668, 686. 

Chippewa (chip'pe-waw), Can., battle of, 
325. 

Choctaws fclmk'tawz), the, 6. note. 

Chiistian Commission, formation of. .566. 

Christina ikris-tee'nrt), Swedish town on 
Delaware River, 22. 

Chronological summary. See Sum- 
mary. 

Churubnsco (choo-roo-boos'ko), battle 
of. 448. 

Cincinnati (sin-sin-nah'tD.O ,settled,264. 

Circuit courts, 743. 

Cities, growth of, Appendix V. 

Cit.y government, 726. 

Civilization due to the white vdce, 1. 

Civil service, Jackson's degradation of, 

392, 405. 
Civil service reform, 672; Cleveland's 

adherence to. 687. 
Clarendon, Colony comes from Barba- 
di.es to North Carolina, 83; removes 
to South Carolina. 86. 
Clarke, Gen. George R., captures Vin- 
cennes, 213, 



Clarke. William, explorer, 303. 

Clay, Henry, leader of House of Repre- 
.sentaiives, 347: candidate for Presi- 
dency, 361 ; devises Compiomise Tariff 
of I8'3:j. 402; nominated for P*resident. 
430; proposes Compromise of 1850, 462. 

Clermont, the, first successful steam- 
boat. .305. 

Cleveland, Grover, elected President. 
078; rapid rise and sterling qualities 
of, 679; fearless exercise of power of 
veto, 687; message of 1887, 690; re- 
nominated for President. 693. 

Clinton, De Witt, nominated for Presi- 
dent, 319; pushes construction of Erie 
Canal, a58. 

Clinton. George, elected Vice-president. 
306; re-elected Vice-president. 313. 

Clinton, Gen. Sir Henrj-, succeeds Howe 
at Philadelphia, 206; retreats to New 
York City, 206; fighting at Monmouth 
Court-house, 206. 

Coal, introduction of anthracite, 875; 
great discoveries of, 487; production 
of, 700, and note. 

Cold Harl)or, Va., battle of. .574. 608. 

Colfax, Schuyler, elected Vice-presi- 
dent. 628. 

Colleges. See Education. 

Colonial governments, 29; collapse of, 185. 

Colonies, growth of, 149; resistance to 
taxation without iepresentatif>n, ].'':8- 
168; union in. 1.50; fall of British gov- 
ernment in, 170. 

Colonization, effects of. 2; completed, 
11"); weakness of French. 1.35. 

Colorado, part taken from Louisiana 
territor.y, 301, note; part of the Mexi- 
can teiritory, 444; discovery of gold 
in, 487; admitted. 654. 

Colt, Samuel, invent' r of revolver, 377. 

Columbia, the, first American voyage 
around the worhi. 280. 

Columbia River, exploration of, .302; sur- 
veyors" boundary of British America, 
439. 

Columbus, (^hristopher, efforts to ac- 
complish his design. 4; discovery of 
land across the Atlantic. 5; subsequent 
voyages, 6; treatment of, 6, note. 

Commerce, attempt of Parliament to 
regulate it by Navigation Acts. 57, 66; 
early. 66: taxes on, 156; under the 
Constitution. 253: prosperity in 1796. 
280; Barbary States' interferences 
with Ameiican, 300; British and 
French interferences with Ameiican. 
308-310: decay in 181.5, 340: increase in 
18.50.467; improvement during Pierce's 
administration. 469; prosperity of 
Northern, in first year of Rebellion, 
.520; ruin of Southern, in first year of 
Rebellion, 520; destruction of Ameri- 
can, .569. 
Coinp 'ss, mariner's, influence of, 3. 
Compromise of 18.50, 462; results of , 465, 
Comstock mines, 487. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



323 



^^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Concord (kong'kurd), Mass., battle of, 
165. 166. 

Confederate States, formation of, 503; 
number. .513; defences of, 513; refused 
recos'iition bv Federal government, 
314; successes in first year of war, 
520; difficulty of recognition by foreign 
powers, 521; declared a helligerent 
power, 531; armed privateers, .551 ; 
hardships in, 5(J2; depieciation of cur- 
rency, 56'i; positions of armies in 1864, 
571 ; weak condition of, 589, 595; effect 
of continuance of the war, 591; break- 
up of governments in, 618. 

Confederation, the. See Articles of 
Confederation. 

Congress, Confederate States, sits at 
Richmond, -tIS. 

Congress, United States, flees from Phil- 
adelphia, 1!I6; limited power of, 312; 
powers under Constitution. 233, 734; 
first acts of, 267; legalizes debts of 
Confederation and States, 267; charac- 
ter of laws passed. 268; charters first 
Bank of United States, 267; taxes 
whiskey, 276; declares war against 
Great Britain in 1812, 318; charters 
second Bank of United States, 341; 
the two sections in, 3i2; declares war 
against Mexico. 441; discusses Kansas 
affairs, 481 ; action of representatives 
of Southern States in, after secession, 
504; special session, I8t5l, 515; vote for 
war expenses, -^lo; exclusion of South- 
ern members, 621 ; quarrel with Presi- 
dent Johnson, 623; complete represen- 
tation of States in, 635; disputes over 
election of 1876.646: constitutes Elec- 
toral Commission, 647; passes Contract 
Labor Act, 686: war powers of, 740. 

Connecticut (kon-net'i-kut). boundary of 
Dutch West India Company's grant, 
21; formation of colony, 27; colony uni- 
ted with that of New Haven, 27; self- 
government, 29; colonized by Massa^ 
chusetts settlers. 46; constitution, 46* 
charter of, -5(1; land claims of, 242; sur- 
render of Westeru claims, 342, 354; 
copper in, 428. 

Coiistit}itiim, the, captures the Guer- 
riere, 332. 

Constitution of the United States (see 
also Amendments), first written Con- 
stitution in America, 46; its forma- 
tion, 352, 253; its terms, 2.53, Appen- 
dix 11 ; success of, under Wash- 
ington, 280; adoption of Twelfth 
Amendment, 289; ratification of Thir- 
teenth Amendment, 619, 62(t; Four- 
teenth Amendment. 634. 625; Fifteenth 
Amendment. 036; systems under which 
country has been governed. 722; the 
three forms of government imder, 723; 
individual liberty and restraint, 724; 
powers denied to the States, 7.35; 
Amendments to, 747; the supreme law 
pf the land, 748; success of, 749. 



Continental arm.y. uniform of, 177, note. 

Continental Congress, first, 162; the sec- 
ond. 171 ; presses the war, 175; waning 
power of. 341. 

Contract Labor Act. 686. 

Contreras (kon-tra'rahs), battle of, 448. 

Convention. Federal, 2.52. 

Cooper, James F. , literary work of, 386. 

Copper, discovery on Lake Superior, 427; 
in Connecticut and New Jersey, 428; 
production of, 700. 

Corinth (kor'inth). Miss., capture of, 525; 
Grant's idleness at, 528; battle of, 548. 

Cornwallis (korn-wol'is). Lord, pursues 
Washington through New Jersey, 189; 
drives Washington to Morristown, 
N. J., 191 ; campaign in South Carolina, 
333; chases Greene across North Car- 
ohna, 336; moves north into Virginia, 
228, 330; caught at Vorktown by the 
French and Americans, 23 i; surren 
ders, 334. 

Cotton, in South Carolina, 87. 

Cotton. Rev. John. 40, 

Cotton-gin, invention of, 281 ; influence 
on slavery. 281. 

Cowpens (kow'penz), S. C, battle of the, 
225. 

Crawford. William H , in Monroe's Cab- 
inet, :M7; candidate for Presidency, 361. 

Credit, 717. 

Creeks, the, 6. note. 

Creek War. the, 3.35. 

Cromwell (krum'well), Oliver, 31. 

Cuba, De Soto governor of, 8; offer to 
purchase, 472 

Cumberland, Md., terminus of national 
road, .357. 

Currency, depreciation of, 210. 

Cyanv (si'an*-). the, captured by Amer- 
ican navy, .333, note. 

Dakota, material improvement, 659. 

Dallas, George M., elected Vice-presi- 
dent, 4.30. 

Dallas. Tex., battle of, 578. 

Dalton Cdawi'tun), Ga., Bragg's retreat 
to, 560. 

Dare, Virginia. 17. 

Davenport fdav'en-port), John, a 
founder of New Haven, 49. 

Davis, Jefferson, elected President of 
the Confedeiate States, 503 ; head- 
quarters at Richmond, 513 ; puts 
Hood in Johnston's place. ,579 ; impol- 
itic action of, 881 ; recalls Johnston, 
596 ; escapes from Richmond, 600 ; 
capture, imprisonment, and release of, 
600, note. 

Dayton, William L., nominated for Vice- 
president, 482, 

Debt, the public, 629 ; refunding, 667 ; 
difficulties of reducing the national, 
676 ; reduction of national, 676, note, 
706. 

Declaration of Independence, 186, and 
note, Appendix I, 



824 



PRONOUNCINO INDEX. 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Delaware (del'a-wur), formation of col- 
ony, 28 ; propi ietary colony. 29 ; 
bought by Penn from Duke of York, 
113. 117; settled by Swedes. 117: taken 
by Dutch, 117 ; taken l)y English from 
Dutch, 117 ; history, 118. 

Delaware Bay, boundary of Dutch West 
India Company's grant, 21. 

Delaware River, Swedisli colony on, 22 ; 
crossed by Washington. 189. 

Deniocriicy, defined. 121 ; influenceof.713. 

Democratic Party, known at first as Re- 
publicHU Party (see Republican Party 
OF 1792), 273, note : rise of. 343. 3G5 ; 
success in 1832, 396 : success in 1S3G, 
403; policy of, 410 : defeat in 1840, 418; 
success iii 1844, 430; puts an end to 
pi-otection,437: supports Mexican War, 
441 ; defeat in 181H, 4.5fi; sections in, 
466; increase of strength in the South, 
466; -uccess in 18.i2, 468 ; success in 
1856. 482; split iiy slavery question. 498; 
nominations of Southern branch in 
1860, 499; nominations of Northern 
branch in 1860, 499; defeat in 1860, 500; 
defeat in 1864, 592; Northern section 
supports President Johnson. 623; de- 
feat in 1868. 628; coincides with Liberal 
Republicans and is defeated in 1872, 
642; loses the Presidency in 1876,644; 
defeat in 1880. 670; success in 1884, 678; 
views as to taiiff in 1887. 689; intro- 
duces Mills Bill, 692; defeat in 1888. 693. 

Detroit, Mich., settled, 132; Pontiac's 
attack on, 145; held by the British, 
237; suirendered by British. 278; sur- 
rendered to British by Hull, 324; re- 
gained from British, 324. 

Dinwiddle (din-wid'dl). Governor, 137. 

Discovery, of America, 2; Spanish, 5-8. 

District courts. 743. 

Dock-yards, power to establish, vested in 
Congress. 253. 

Donelson, Andrew J., nominated for 
Vice-president. 482. 

Dorchester HeiL'hts, Mass., seized by 
Washington, 178. 

Dorr Rel)ellion. the, 429. 

Donirliis (<lug'h/s), Stephen A., action in 
Kansas-Nebraska case, 476; leader 
of Northern Democrats, 498; nomi- 
nated for President. 499. 

Dover, N. H., settlement, 45. 

Draft, the. .567: riots, 567. 

Drake, Sir Francis, explores Pacific 
coast, 7; fights Spanini-ds, 15. 

Dred -Scott case, 495: effects of, 496. 

Drunkenness, decrease of. 388. < 

Dutch settlements of Middle Colonies, 28. 

Early. Gkn. Ji-bal A., defeated at battle 
at Winchester. .577 ; surprises Union 
army at Cedar Ci'eek, 577, defeated 
by Sheridan, .577. 

East Indies, 4. 9. 

I'^aton. Theophilus, a founder of New 
Haven. 49. 



Education, early New England, 65; pro- 
vision for public schools in Ordinance 
of 1787, 246; rise of present s.vstem, 
384; establishment of normal schools, 
384; increase of nianber of c 'lieges, 
384,709; condition in 1860,490; statis- 
tics of, 707; present condition of, 707; 
effects of, 714. 

Elberon (el'be-ron), N. J., death of Gar- 
field at, 671. 

Elections, early presidential, 279: Fed- 
eral control of, in the South, 639; re- 
turning-boards, 645. 

Electoral Commission constituted, 647. 

Electoral Count Act. 682. 

Electoral system. 7:i8. 

Electricity, Franklin's discoveries, 172; 
introduction of electric lights and 
mot< >rs, 661 . 

Elevators, invention of, 492. 

Ehzaheth. Queen, 15. 

Elizabelhtown. N. J . settlement, 111. 

KIkton, JId., British land at, 194; Wash- 
ington embarks at. for Yorktown, 233. 

Emancipation. See Sl.avh;ry. 

Emancipation Proclamation, effect of, 
620. 

Embargo Act, its passage and failure, 
311.312. 

Emerson, Ralph W., rise of, 489. 

Endicott (en'dl-kut), John, first gov- 
ernor of Massachusetts Bay Colony. 40. 

Energy, a nation of, 716. 

England, early discoveries of, 10; fail- 
ures of, 15; war with Spain. 15; claim 
to central North America, 20; estab- 
lishment of commonwealth, 31 ; revolu- 
tion in, 33; Separatists sail for Amer- 
ica from, 34. See also Great Britain. 

English, William H., nominated for 
Vice-president, ()70. 

Eperviir (aper've-a). the, captured by 
American navy, 333. note. 

Era of Good Feeling, the. 348. 

Ericsson (er'Ik-sen). John, introduces 
the screw propeller, 376; builds the 
Monitor. 532. 

Eiie Canal, establishment of. 3-58. 

Essex, the, captured by the British, 333. 
note. 

Ether, its application to surgery. 432. 

Europe, nations of, 3; estimate of coal 
supply. 700, note. 

Eutaw(u'taw) Springs, S.C.,battleof,229. 

Everett (ev'er-et). Edward, nominated 
for Vice-president. 499. 

EverglHdes, Fla., scene of the Seminole 
War. 383. 

Executive Department, the. 731. 7:^6. 

Exposit ions. London. 470; Crystal Palace. 
New Y..rk. 470. 

E.vpress companies, their origin. 413. 

E.\tradition, 745. 

Fairfield, Conn., scene of the Pequot 

War, 48. 
Fair Oaks, Va., battle of, 540. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



325 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Farewell address, extracts from Gteorge 
Washington's, Aiipendix VI. 

Farragut (far'(i-gut), David G., at battle 
of New Orleans, 534; in Mobile Bay,587. 

Fear, Cape, boundary of London Com- 
pany's grant. 19. 

Federal convention, ~'51. ^52. 

Federal government, 723; early fear of, 
840; established by the Constitution, 
253, 254; its three departments, 253; 
constitution of, V3I. 

Federal Party, iis origin, 2.54; success of, 
272; its purposes, 273; advocates Bank 
of United States, 2^3; defeat in 1800, 
287; downfall of. 290; stability of its 
work. 298; decline of influence of, 299; 
defeat in 1804, 306; supports De Witt 
Clinton. 319; becomes extinct, 343, 348. 

Ferdinand, King of Spain, 4. 

Filibusters, attacks on Cuba, 472 and 
note. 

Fillmore, Millard, elected Vice-presi- 
dent. 456; becomes President through 
death of Taylor, 464; nominated for 
re-election, 482. 

Firearms, improvements in, 377. 

Fires, great, 653. 

Fisheries, early. 66. 

Fishery question, decision of the, 650. 

Fitch. Joim, attempts to propel vessels 
by steam, 280. 

Five. Forks. Va., battle of, .599. 

Five Nations, 6, note. 

Flag, constitution of. 177, note. 

Florida, discovery.and origin of name. 7; 
purchase of, 7. note; an English colony, 
26, note; part of United States, 26, 
note; surrendered by Spain, 146; pur- 
chase of. 3.55; Seminole War, 383; ad- 
mitted, 425; secession, .501, 513; read- 
mitted, 625; disputed election returns 
in. 644, 645. 

Florida, the, equipment of. 551 ; ravages 
of. 551. 569; destruction of, .590. 

Food of early New Englander, 63. 

Fort Dearborn, foundation of city of 
Chicago, 'i'i^. 

Fort Donelson, Tenn., capture of, 593; 
battle of, 548. 606 

Fort Duquesne 0lu-k5ne0. 1.38; defeat of 
Braddock near, 140; British capture of, 
141. 

Fort Fisher, N. C. first attack on, 588; 
captured by Terry, .588. 

Fort Henry, Ky., capture of, 523; bat- 
tle of, 548. 

Fort McAllister, Ga., capture of. 585. 

Fort Necessity, surrender at, 138. 

Fort Pitt, 141. 

Fort Pulaski. Ga., capture of, .533. 

Fortress Monroe. Va., 537; McClellan's 
movement to, .538. 

Forts, early French, 134, 137; power to 
build, vested in Congress, 253. 

Fort Schuyler, successful defence of.]99. 

Fort Sumter. S.C., Southern preparations 
to attack, 505; bombardment of, 509. 



Fort Washington, capture of, 188. 

!■ ranee, discoveries of, II; failures in 
colonization, 13; explorations beyond 
Canada, 131 ; her explorers in America, 
132; settlements within the United 
States, 132, 133, 134; early forts, 134, 
137; weakness of colonies, 1.35; efforts 
to keep English east of Alleghanies, 
137; loses Canada. 144; aids Americans, 
202; treaty with. 204; England declares 
war against, 205; United States, na- 
tionality recognized by. 240; revolu- 
tion in, 214; war with Great Britain, 
274; demands aid from the United 
States, 275; difRcnlties with. 283; war 
with, 284; peace with, 285; wars with 
Great Britain. 285; sells Louisiana to 
Unite<l States 301 ; oppresses America n 
commerce, 309. 310; loses trade with 
United State.s, 312; succeeds in bring- 
ing United States into war with Great 
Britain. 316; conquered by Great Brit- 
ain, ;?3S; pays United States claims, 
390; erects an empire in Mexico, 570; 
begins canal across Isthmus of I'ana- 
nia, 680; contrasted with United 
States, 696. 

Franklin, Tenn., battle of, .582. 

Franklin, Benj.. plan of clonial union, 
139; delegate to Continental C<iiigress, 
171; careerof, 172; .sent to France, 203. 

Frauds. Indian, 643; whiskey. 643. 

Fraziei's Farm. Va.. battle of, 543. 

Fredericksbnrgh, Va.. Burnside's cam- 
paign against, 536; Confederates 
retire to, 546; battle of, 547, 606. 

Freednien. right to vote, 624. 

Freehold, N. J., battle at, 206. 

Free-Soil Party, formation of, 455; in 
election of 1852, 468. 

Free trade, meaning of the term, 359; 
question raised during Cleveland's 
administration, 690. See also Protec- 
tion; Revenue; Tariff. 

Frelinghuysen, Theodore, nominated 
for Vice-president, 430. 

Fr6mont, John C explores Rocky 
Mountains, 443; aids in conquest of 
California, 443; nominated for Presi- 
dent, 482. 

French America, 11. 

French and Indian War, its origin, 60; 
first fighting. 60; conquest of all Can- 
ada, 61, 138-148. 

Frobisher (fio'bish-er), Martin, at- 
tempts settlement in liabrador, 15. 

Frolic, the. capture of. 3.33. note. 

Fugitive-Slave Law, passage of, 462, 463; 
influence on election of 1852, 468. 

Fugitive slaves, complaint of the slave 
States as to, 461. 

Fur trade, 100. 

Gage, Gen. Thomas, appointed gover- 
nor of Massachusetts. 163; organizes 
expedition to Concord, 164; orders 
attack at Bunker Hill, 176. 



326 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



(iaines's Mill. Va., battle of. .543. 

Garfield, James A., elected President, 
670; assassination of. b?l. 

Ganisou. William L., originates demand 
for abolition of slavery, 389. 

Gas for ligliiing, not known in 1790, 258; 
increased use in 1860, 491. 

Gaspee (K5s-p5'i, burning of. 157. 

Gates, Gen., defeats British at Bemis 
Heights and Stillwater, 200; sent to 
South Carolina. 2-,'4. 

Genet (jgnef), French envoj' to United 
States. 275. 

Genoa (jen'o-a), Italy, birthplace of 
C'>lumbus, 4. 

Geography, early notions of, 4-6. 

George II., 91. 

George III., rebellion against, 169. 

George, Lake, N. Y . battle near, 140. 

Georgia, early exploratlimsin, 8; settle- 
ment of, 26, 92; origin of name, 26, 
note, 91 ; royal colony, 29, 93; a refuge 
for English poor, 91; slavery in, 93; a 
proprietary colony, 93; government, 
93; conquest of, 220; surrender of 
western claims, 245; secession. ."iOl, 
513; Atlanta campaign, .580; Sher- 
man's maich through, 584; refused 
reconstruction. 625; readmitted. 635. 

Georgia, the, ravages of, 569; destruc- 
tion of, 590. 

Germaniown, battle of, 195. 

German.y. disputes abont Samoa, 680. 

Gerry ( ger'rl ), Elbridge, elected Vice- 
president, 319, 

Gettysburgh, Pa., battle of, 554, 607. 

Ghent (gnnt). treaty of, :i38. 

Gilbert, Sir llnniplirey, attempted set- 
tlement in Newfoundland, 15; death of, 
15. 

Glendale. Va., battle of. 543. 

Gold, In Southern States, 428; discovered 
in California. 457, 4.5S; greai discover- 
ies of. 487; production "if, 700. 

Goldsboro. N. C, arrival of Sherman at, 
597. 

Good fHith, a nation of. 717. 

G'lod Hope, Cape of, discovered, 4. 

Goodyear, Charles, his process of vul- 
canizing rubber. 432. 

Gorges, (giir'jez). Sir Ferdinando, grant 
to, 45. 

Gosnold fgoz'nnld). Bartholomew, dis- 
covers new route to America. IS. 

Government, colonial, 29; effect of re- 
publican form, 297. 

Graham, William A., nominated for 
Vice-president, 468. 

Grand Army of the Kepuhlic, 603 

Grand Gulf. Miss. .Granfs advance fo.55S. 

Grant, U. S.. first grt*at success of, .523; 
in battle of Pittsliupgh Landing. .521; 
work (itPittsburgh Landing criticised, 
525; position at Corinth, 528; first 
attempt on Vicksburgh. 528; friend- 
ship with Sherman. .528; position at 
Holly Springs, 556; assigned to capture 



of Vicksburgh, 556; captures Vicks- 
burgh, 558: command of Westei-n 
armies given to, .560; advance on Chat- 
tanooga. .560; created lieutenant-gen- 
eral. 572; movement against Lee. 572; 
reaches Chickahominy, 574; before 
Petersburgh, .576; Lee's surrender to, 
601: elected President. 628: character 
of. 634: re-elected President, 642: po- 
litical scandals against. 643; unhappi- 
ness of second term, 6.57. 

Great Britain (see also Engi.and). rising 
power of Parliament. ;iO: claim to ter- 
ritory, 130; struggle with France for 
territory, KW; ignorance of colonies in, 
151 : increase in national debt, 152: sym- 
pathy for AmericMUs. 181 ; declares war 
against France. 205; United States, na- 
tionality recognized by. 240; surren- 
ders De'tr-oJt and other forts. 278; wars 
with France, 285; injuries to American 
commerce, 295. :iu8-3IO; war with 
United States, 295; asserts light of im- 
pressment and search, 308; loses trade 
with the United States, 312. 316; in- 
volved in war with United States. 316: 
her navy, 322, 3;i0; sends expedition 
against Louisiana. .3:36. 837: makes 
treaty of peace, 3;i7. 3:W; conquers 
France, 3.i8; claims the Oregon coun- 
try, 416: treaty with. 422; settles Maine 
boundar-y, 422; comprorrrises Oregon 
disfute, 4:39: Confederate ships briilt 
in, .521; action in the ca.ses of the 
Alubamn and the Floridn, ,551: treaty 
of Washington. 649: decision of Alaba- 
ma claims. 649. 6.50; fishery dispute 
with. 680; estimate of coal supply, 700, 
note: surpasses United States in 
wealth, 710. 

Gvent Western, the, crosses the Atlantic 
by steam, 417. 

Gr-eelev, Horace, nominated for Presi- 
dent. 642. 

Greene. Gen. Nathaniel, succeeds Gates. 
225; his success, 226; reconquers 
South Carolina. 229. 

Green Mountain Bovs. 55. 

Greensboro, N. C. haitle at. 2'2S. 

Groton (grot'n). Conn., scene of Pequot 
War, 4K. 

Guano, influence of u.se of, 491. 

Giierriere (ger-rearf-') the, captured by 
the Cnti.ttitiitioti, ?Si. 

Guerrillas, activity of. .529. 

Guilford Coirrt House. N.C., battle of. 228. 

Guiteau. C. J., assassinates Gar-field. 671. 

Grmboats, work of, on Western rivers. 
.530. 

Gunpowder, influence of, 3. 

Hale, John P., nominated for President, 
46H. 

Hale, Capt. Nathan, execution of, 189. 
note. 

Halifax, N S.. British troops leave Bos- 
ton for, 178. 



PRONOUNCINO INDEX. 



327 



' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Halleck, Gen. Henry W., drives rebels 
out of Missouri, 519; assumes com- 
mand of the army, 5:J5; transferred to 
Washington, 5Ai. 

Hamilton, Alexander, career of, 250; 
Secretary of the Treasury, :i(j6: leader 
of Federal Party, 2Ti. 273; differ- 
ences with Adams, 282; shot by Burr, 
299. 

Hamlin, Hannibal, nominated for Vice- 
president, 499; elected Vice-president, 
500. 

Hampton Roads, the Merrimac in, .5.^1 ; 
fight between Monitor and Merrimac, 
532; battle of, 548. 

Hancock, John, delegate to Continental 
Congress. 171. 

Hancock, Gen. Winfield S., nominated 
for President, 670. 

Hai-niar, Gen., expedition against In- 
dians. 270. 

Harper's Ferry, Va., John Brown's raid, 
497; captured by Jacksun. 545. 

HarrisLiui-gh, Pa., Lee's advance near, 
5.53. 

Harrison, Gen. Benjamin, elected Presi 
dent. 693. 

Harrison, Gen. William H., fights battle 
of Tippecanoe, 317; made commander- 
in-chief of the West, 324; defeats 
British in battle of the Thames and 
recovers the Northwest, 324; elected 
President, 418; death of, 420. 

Hartford, Conn., settlement, 46. 

Harvard College, founded. 65. 

Hatcher's Run, Va., Grant's movement 
on, 598. 

Hatteras Inlet, N. C, capture of. 511; 
United States secures harbor in, .520. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, literary work of, 
386. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., nominated for 
President, 644; declared President by 
Electoi al Commission, 647. 

Heating appliances. 491. 

Hendricks, Thomas A., nominated for 
Vice-president, 644; elected Vice-presi- 
dent, 678. 

Henry, Joseph, inventor in electric 
telegraphy, 426. 

Henry. Patrick, leader of Virginia As- 
sembly, 155; delegate to Continental 
Congress. 171. 

Hessians, hired by Eneland. 182. 

Hobkirk's Hill, S. C, battle of, 229. 

Hoe, R. M., invents cylinder printing- 
press, 432. 

Holland, early! restrictions on explora- 
tion, 9; rebellion against Spain, 21; 
refuge of English nonconformists, 34; 
alliance with France, 205, note. 

Holly Springs, Miss., Grant's position at, 
' 556. 

Holmes (homz), O. W., literary work of, 
386. 

Honesty, 717. 

Hood. Gen. J. B.. succeeds Johnston, 



579: defeated by Sherman, 580; change 
of plan,.581 ; dispersion of his army. 582. 

Hooker, Gen. Joseph E., succeeds Burn- 
side in eommand, 547; movements 
parallel to Lee. 553. 

Hooker, Rev. Thomas, 40, 46; heads emi- 
gration to Connecticut, 46. 

Horse-shoe Bend, Ala., battle of, 335. 

Hospitals, 709. 

House of Representatives, 731 ; constitu- 
tion and powers, 733; election by, 361. 

Howe, Adni. Richard, in command of 
expedition against New York, 187. 

Howe,Elias.patentssewitig-machine,432. 

Howe, Gen Sir VVdliam, in command 
of expedition against Ne\v York, 187; 
expedition to Chesapeake Bay, 194; 
captures Philadelphia, 195. 

Hudson, Hendrik, discovers Hudson Riv- 
er, 21. 

Hudson River, boundary of Plymouth 
Company's grant, 19. 

Hull, Gen., surrenders Detroit, 334. 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, jjersecution and 
murder of, 41. 

Idaho, United States' claim to, 302; dis- 
covery of gold in, 487; admitted, 684, 
note. 

Illinois, conquest of territory, 213; coun- 
ty of, 213; claim of Connecticut to, 
242; formation of State, 246; admitted, 
350; lead mines in, 428; Mormon settle- 
ments in, 484. 

Immigration, the great, 39; European, 
380; ol)jectionable increase of, 47."). 

Impeachment, power of Senate in re- 
gard to, 732; power of House of Rep- 
resentatives in regard to, 733. 

Impressment, right of, asserted by Great 
Britain, 308. 

Imprisoimient for debt, decrease of, 388. 

Independence, growth toward, in colo- 
nies, 122; desire for, 184; Declaration 
of, 186, Appendix I. ; recognition of, by 
Great Britain. 235, 236. 

Indiana, conquest of territory, 213; claim 
of Connecticut to, 242; formation of 
State, 246: immigration, 292; admitted, 
342. 

Indian and French War, the, 138-148. 

Indian frauds, 643. 

Indians, origin of the name, 6; troubles 
of Connecticut with, 48; Narrag,".nsett. 
.52; troubles in New England with, 58: 
troui)les of Virginia with, 72, 73; treat- 
ment in Georgia, 92; fin- trade with, 
100; treatment in Pennsylvania, 114: 
massacres by, 209; possessions west 
of Alleghanies, 213; outbreak in Ohio, 
270; allies of British in 1812, 324: 
troubles with the Creeks, 335; Black 
Hawk War, 382; Seminole War, 383. 

Indian Territory, formed out of Louisi- 
ana territory, 301, note. 

Indigo, in South '^'arolina. 87; commerce 
in, 126. 



328 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



t^0~' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Insurance companies, rise of, 380. 
Insurrections, power to suppress, vested 

in Congress, iiH^i. 
Interior, department of the, established, 

436. 
Interstate commerce, appointment of 

coniniissioii to regulate, 685. 
Interstale relations. 74.5. 
Intolerable .\cts, the, KiO. 
Inventions and discoveries during Folk's 

adiiiinislratiou, 4Sd. 
Iowa, formed out of Louisiana territorj-, 

301, note; lead in, 4iH; admitted, 438. 
Iron, in Pennsylvania, 4',i8; production 

of. 700. 
Irving, Washington, literary work of, 

386. 
Isabella. Queen of Spain. 4. 
Island No. 10, fortification of and final 

capture, 530. 

Jackson, Andrew, [mt in command of 
Tennessee troops, 335: defeats the 
Creeks, HSH; m battle of New Orlean.s, 
3oB. 337; prominence of 347; candi- 
date for Presidency , 361 ; elected Presi- 
dent, 367; his career. 371 ; foreign pol- 
icy of. 39t); political contests. 3!)1; 
chantres the civil service, .39J; over- 
throws Bank of United States, :i'M. 3.14; 
attacks the American System, 3:i5: re- 
elected President. 396; resists nullifi- 
cation, 401; general success, 404; re- 
tirement, 404; influence. 405. 

Jackson, Gen. Thomas .\. ("Stonewall"'), 
his career, .541; defeats Banks, 542; 
stratesj.v of, .542; in second Ijatile of 
Bull Riin.544; captures Harper's Fer- 
ry. 545; killed, .552; Lee's union with, 
5.52. 

'• Jackson men, " afterwards Democratic 
Part,\-, 3(;5. 

James I., settlements tmder. 19. 

James H., reign and expulsion of. 33. 

James River, discovery of, 24; Union 
control of, 538; crossed by Grant, 575. 

Jamestown, Va., settlement of 2ii, 24; 
destruction of, 24. note; settlement, 67. 

.Japan, opened to American commerce, 
473. 

Java. the. captured by American navy, 
SiS, note. 

Jay. John. deleg.Tte to Continental Con- 
gress. 171 ; appointed minister to Eng- 
land, 278. 

Jefferson, Thomas, delegate to Conti- 
nental Congiv.ss, 171; character of. 174; 
draws Dt'claration of Indt'pet^idence, 
l.**!!; as a sp.-aker. 186. note; death of. 
186. note: Secretarv of Stnte, 266; 
leader of Republican Party, 273: 
elected Vii-e pre-sidt-nt, 279; elected 
I'resideiit, 2"<H; doctrine of his piirty, 
296, 298; cliauire of manners diiriiisr 
his administration.^, 297, 298; orders 
Oregon countiy e.\plored, 302; re- 
elected President, 306. 



.Johnson, Andrew, elected Vice-pre.s- 
ident, .592; succeeds Lincoln as Pres- 
ident, 614, 616; rise and character, 616; 
quarrel with Congiess. 623; impeach- 
ment an^l acquittal. (;27. 

Johnson, Heischel V.. nominated for 
Vice-president, 499. 

Johnson, Richard M., elected Vice-pres- 
ident, 403; renominated for Vice-pres- 
idency, 418. 

Johnson, Sir William, defeats French 
at Lake George, 140. 

Johnston, Gt'ii. Albert Sidney, defeated 
by Buel, .523; killed at Pittsl/urgli Land- 
ing, 524. 

Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., headquarters 
of, 513; success at Bull Run, 516; 
movt-meut to meet JlcClellan. 538; in 
battles of Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, 
540: wounded, 540; . snrreudeis com- 
mand to Lee. 54(1; Confederate com- 
mander in tlie West. 557; in Vicks 
l)iu'Kh campaign. .5.58; succeeds BrjigK, 
560; position at Dalton. .571; fine mili- 
tary tactics of. 578; position at Atlanta. 
578; removal, .579; recalled to com- 
mand, 596; attacks Sherman, 597; 
surienders to Sherman, 602. 

Joliet (zho-le a'). Louis, discovers upper 
Mississippi, 132. 

Jones, .John P., captin-es the Serapis. 
218; career, 218. note. 

Judicial Department, the, 731. 

Judiciary, organization of, 267, 743 

Julian, (ieorge W., nominated for Vice- 
president by Free-Soil Party, 468. 

Justice, Department of, 737. 

Kalb (Itnlb), Baron de, j<iins American 
army, 193; killed at Camden, 224. 

Kansas, formed out of Louisiana terri- 
tory, 301, note; becomes a Territory. 
479; struggle between two .sections for, 
479-181 ; P'reeState settlers win, 480: 
admitted, 48.5. 

Kansas-. N'ebraska Act, its passage and 
consequences. 476. 

Kaskaskia (kas-kas'ke-o), early French 
fort, 134. 

Kearny (kar'nl). Gen. S. W., conquers 
New ;\lexico. 443. 

K('ins(ir(/e (ke'ar sarj), the. sinks the 
Alabama, .590. 

Keiiesaw (ken-e-saw') Mountain, Ga., 
battle of, 578 

Kenincky. settlements in, 213; forma- 
tion of, 246; settlements in. 263; ad- 
mitted, 269; growth of. 292: maintains 
Union, 512; held by Federal govern- 
ment. 514; saved to the Union, .520; 
Bragg's advance on, 526* Bragg's raid, 
5 18 

Key. Francis S., writes "The Star- 
Spintrled Banner." 328, note. 

Kidd. Captain. 107. 

King. William R., elected Vice-president . 
468. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



329 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Kin^ George's War, 60. 

King's Mouutain, N. C, battle of, 223. 

King William's War, GO. 

Kingston, N. Y., 109. 

Kingston, R. I., scene of swamp flght 

with Indians. .^H. 
Know-nothing Party, rise of, 475 and 

note. 
Knox, Henry, Secretary of War, 266. 
Kosciusko (kossl-us'ko), Tliaddens, 

joins .-vnierican arinv, 193. 
Ku-Klux Klan. the, 638. 

Labor, improvement of free labor over 
slave labor, 67^; troubles about, 
686. 

Lafayette (lah-fa-ef), Ind., 317. 

La Fayette, Marquis de, joins revolution- 
ists, 193; fights Arnold in Virginia, 
227. 

Lakes, the Great, increase of trade on, 
379. 

Land claims, 242. 

Lane, Joseph, nominated for Vice-presi- 
dent, 499. 

La Salle (lah sahl), Robert de, explores 
Mississippi, 132. 

Lawrence, the. Perry's flagship, 334. 

Lead, in Illinois and Iowa, 428; produc- 
tion of, 700. 

Lee, Gen. Robert E., headquarters of, 
513; takes command from Johnston, 
540; his ability. 541; repulsed at Mal- 
vern Hill, 543; first, invasion of the 
North, 545; in battle of Antietam, 
546; opinion of Jackson, 5.r2; attempts 
seC'ind invasion of the North, 5.53; 
retreat from Gettysburgli, 55.t; position 
in VirgiQia. 571; position at Peters- 
burgh, 575. 576, 6(10: retreat from 
Petersburgh and Richmond, 600; sur- 
render, 601. 

Legislation, witliout representation, re- 
sistance to, 161; power of Congress, 
734; President's powers in regard to, 
741; C<institutional, 744. 

Legislative Department. 253, 731. 

Leisler, Jacob, governor of New York, 
103; hung for treason. 106. 

Leon, Ponce deCpone'tha da la'one), dis- 
covery of Florida, 7. 

Leopard, the, insults the Chesapeake, 
310. 

Levant (le-vanf), the, captured by 
American navy, 333. note. 

Lewis, .Aleriwether, explorer, 302. 

Lexington. Mass., battle of, 165. 166; bat- 
tle forms first chapter in history of 
United States, 109. 

Libei-al Republican Party, rise of, 641; 
nominations in 1872. 642. 

Liberty Party, in campaign of 1840, 418. 

Libraries, public, 492, 709 

Lincoln. Abraham, nominated for Presi- 
dent, 4>.)9; elected President. 500; in- 
augurated, .506; early life, 508; calls 
for volunteers, 610; re-elected Presi- 



dent, 592; character of his work, 612; 
assassination and burial of, 613. 

Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, capttu-ed at 
Charleston, 222. 

Literature, scarcity of, in 1790, 260; 
growth of, 386. 

Loans, French and Dutch, 212. 

Locomotive, the, invention of, 368, 372. 

Logan, Jt)hn A., nominated for Vice- 
president, 678. 

Log-cabin campaign, 418. 

London Company, established, 19, 20; 
success of, 24; forfeiture of chaiter, 
25. 

Longfellow, H. W., literary work of, 
386. 

Long Island, defeat of Americans on, 
188. 

Long Island Sound, shores of, harassed. 
209. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 560, 607. 

Louisburgh (loo'is-burg), taken by the 
English, 61; expedition against, 141; 
attack on Quebec from, 142. 

Louisiana State, formation of State. 
301 ; attacked by British. 336, 337; ad- 
mitted. 342; secession, 501, 513; Red 
River expedition, 586; readmitted, 625; 
disouted election-returns in, 644, 645. 

Louisiana Tenitory, named, 147; Spain's 
territory becomes western boundary 
of United States, 236; transferred by 
France to United States in 18(13, 301; 
partition of territory into other States, 
301, note. 

Lowell (lo'el), James R., rise of, 489. 

Lucifer match, not known in 1790, 258. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of. 32.5. 

Lynn (lin). Mass . settlement, 39. 

Lyon, Uen. Nathaniel, killed in battle of 
Wilson's Creek, 519. 

McCtEU.AN. Gen. George B.. victory at 
Rich Mountain, 517; appointed to 
command Army of Potomac, 518; 
campaign on the Peninsula. .536. 537; 
designs as-ainst Richmond, 537; i>ur- 
suit of Confederates towards Rich- 
mond. .538; attempt to join McDowell, 
539; divides his armv on the Chicka- 
liominy. 539; cut off from supplies, .543; 
retreat to Jairies River, 543: success 
at Malvern Hill, 543; recalled to de- 
fend Washington. 544; in battle of 
Antietam. 546; relieved of command, 
546; nominated for President, .592. 

Mccormick. Cyrus H., inventor of reap- 
ing-machine, 377. 

Macdoiiough, Commodore Thomas, 
victory on Lake Champlain. 334. 

McDowell. Gen. Irwin, covers Wa-^hing- 
ton. .537; recalled from Fredericks- 
burgh to defend Washington. 542. 

Macedonian, the, raptured by Ameri- 
can navy. .333, note. 

Mackinjiw (mak'in aw), early French 
fort, 134. 



330 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Madison, James, elected President, 313; 
his career, 315; re-elected President, 
319. 

Magazines, increase in 1860, 489. 

Mails, carriatie of. ;!53. 

Maine, set off from Massachusetts, 27, 
note; united to Massachusetts Bay 
Colony, 44; admitted, 350; boundary 
dispute, 41(5, 'iJri. 

Malvern (mawl'vem) Hill, Va., battle of, 
543. 

Manassas (tnri-nas'sas) Junction, Va., 
battle of, 517. 

31anhattan (man-hal'tau) Island, estab- 
lishineut of tradmg posts on, 21. 

Manufactures, begun in New England, 
m\ rise of, 2H0; decline after 1SI5, 340; 
lack of, ill slave States, 31)4; increase 
in 1850, 4(i7; improvement during 
Pierce's adiiiinisiration, 409; pros- 
perity of Northern, in Hist year of Ke- 
bellion, 5-.i0; ruiu of Southern, in first 
year of Rebellion, 5^0; prosperity in 
1881, 074. 

Marcli to the Sea, 584. 

Marietta (ma-re-ei'ta), O., settled, 'i&i. 

Mariner's cumpass. influence of, 3. 

Marion (in&'il-un), Gen. Francis, 223. 

Marquette, Jacques (zliahk mar-kef), 
finds the Mississippi, 132. 

Maryland, formatiou of colony, 26; ori- 
gin of name, 26. note, 75; proprietary 
colony, 29, 75; first proprietor, 75; an 
asylum for Roman Catholics, 75; set- 
tlement, 76; self-government in, 77; 
made a royal colony, 77; restored to 
the Calverts, 77; religions toleration 
in, 78; Mason and Dixon's line, 79; 
position in election of 1856,482; held 
by Federal Government, 514; saved to 
the Union, 520. 

Mason. James M., seizure, imprison- 
m'-nt, and liberation of. .522. 

Mason, John, proprietor of New Hamp- 
shire, 45. 

M.ison and Di.von's line, 79. 

Mnssachusetts. formation of colony, 27; 
Maine set off from. 27, note: self-gov- 
ernment. 29; British attempt to de- 
stroy self-government, 160; Gen. Gage 
appointed governor, 103; prepara- 
tions for revolution, 163; sends .John 
and Samuel Adams and John Hancock 
toContinental Congress. 171 : surrender 
of Western claims. 245; Shays's re- 
bellion, 249; troops attacked in Balti- 
more, 510. , 

Massachusetts Bay Colony, formation 
of, 27, 38; united with that of Ply- 
month, 27; new charter, 44; union of 
colonies with, 44. 

Matamoras (mnt-amo raa), Mex., seized 
by Taylor, 442. 

Matches, invention of friction. 377. 

MatthfW, the, early exploring ship, 10. 

Maximilian, made emperor of Mexico, 
570; shot, 630. 



Mayflower^ the, 34. 

Meade, Gen. George E., succeeds 
Hooker in command, 553. 

Mechanicsville, Va., action at, 543. 

Mtrrimac, the, operations of, 531; 
action with the Monitor, 532; destruc- 
tion of. 5;i8. 

Mexico, Spanish conquests in, 7; claims 
Nueces River as western boundary of 
Texas, 440; war declared with, 441; 
G«n. Scott's opei'ations in, 446-450; 
capture of city of Mexico, 450; peace 
concluded, 451; evacuation of, 451; 
formation of empire in. 570; evac- 
uation by France, 630. 

Mexico, Gulf of, Spanish discoveries in, 7. 

-Miclii^'an, formation of State, 246; re- 
gained by the British, 324; admitted, 
381. 

Middle Colonies, settled by Dutch, 28; 
captured by English, 28; colonies 
formed therefrom, 28; under English 
control, 99. 

Middle States Revolutionary war in, 187. 

Milan (ml-lan') Decree, the, 309. 

Milledgeville, Ga., Sherman's march 
through, .584. 

Millen, Ga., Sherman's march through, 
584. 

Mills. R. Q . introduces tariff bill, 692; ta- 
riff bill made issue in election of 1888, 
6113. 

MiU Spring, Kv., battle of. 523, .>18. 

Minerals, wealth of the country in, 428. 

Minnesota, part of, taken from Louis- 
iana territory, 301, note; admitted, 465. 

Minuit(min'u it), Peter, establishes Swed- 
ish colony, 22 

Minute-men. 165: nucleus of Continental 
army, 175. 

Missionaries, early stations of, 132. 

Missionary Ridge captured, 560, 607. 

Mississippi, State, early explorations in, 
8; formation of, 246<;"' paucity of popu- 
lation in 1812. .321 ; admitted, 3,50; 
secession, .501,513; refused reconstruc- 
tion, 625; readmitted, 63."i. 

Mississippi River, discovery of, 8; French 
discoveries on. 8; exploration of. 132. 
boundary between Spanish and Eng- 
lish possessions, 14ti: boundary of 
United States in 178:^, 236; Burr's ex- 
pedition on, 307; increa.se of trade on, 
379; opened from Cairo to Memphis. 
.525; defences of, .534; Farragut's ac- 
tions on, 534. .535: opening of naviga- 
tion on, .535. 548, 607. 

Mississippi treaty, the. 277. 

Mississippi Valley, early inhabitants of, 
6, note. 

Missouri, State, formed out of Louisiana 
territory, 301. not« ; admitted, 3.50; 
trouble over admission, 353; Dred Scot 
case, 495; maintains Union. 512; held by 
Federal Government, 514; saved to the 
Union. .520: Confederate relinquish- 
ment of. 529. 



PRONOTTNGING INDEX. 



331 



' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



MiBSOuri Compromise passed, 354. 

Missouri River, exploration of, 302. 

Mobile (mo-beel'), Ala., settlement. 133; 
blockade running from, 533. 

Mobile Bay, battle of, 5t*7. 

Molino del Rey (mo le'no del ra), battle 
of, 449. 

Monitor, the, building of, 533; action 
with the Aterrimac, 532; effect on na- 
vies of the world, 532. 

Monmouth imon'muth). Dattle of , 200. 

Monroe (mun-ro'j, James, elected Presi- 
dent, 3!4; career of, 346; re-elected 
President. 348: 

Monroe Doctrine, Its announcement, 356. 

Montana, formed out of Louisiana terri- 
tory, 301, note; admitted. 6^4. 

Montcalm (mont-kahm'). Marquis de, 
ability, 140: defeats British at Ticon 
deroga. 141; defence of Quebec, 142,143; 
death of, 143. 

Monterey (mon te ra'j), Mex.. battle of, 
445. 

Montgomery, Ala., formation of Confed- 
erate Government at, .503; Confederate 
capital removed from, 5:3. 

Montgomery, Gen. Richard, invades 
Canada, ISO: captures Montreal, ISO; 
killed at Quebec, 180. 

Montreal (mont-re-awl') surrender of, 
144; captured by Montgomery, 180. 

Monts (mawn(g)), de, found settlements, 
14. 

Morgan, Gen. Daniel, in command of 
Americans at the Coupens, 225. 

Mormons, the, early history and settle- 
ment in Utah, 484; United States legis- 
lation against polygamy, 673. 

Morocco, piracies of, 300.' 

Morris, Robert, delegate to Continental 
Congress, 171. 

Morristown, N. J., fortified by Washing- 
ton, 191; Washington's position at. 207. 

Morse, Samuel F. B., inventor in electric 
telegraphy, 426. 

Morton, Levi P., elected Vice-president, 
693. 

Morton, Dr. W. T. G., application of 
ether. 4:^2. 

Motley, J. L., rise of, 489. 

Mound- builders, the, 6. note. 

Mount Hope, R. I., King Philip's head- 
quarters. 58. 

Mount Vernon, Va., Washington retires 
to. 237. 

Mulhall. comparative table of wealth in 
Great Britain and United States, 710, 
note. 

Municipal government, 723. 725, 726. 

Murfreesboro (mur-freez-bur'ro), Tenn., 
battle of, 527,606; Rosecrans's position 
at, 556. 

Nashville, Tenn., siege of, 582 ; destruc- 
tion of Hood's army at, 608. 
National banks, establishment of, 565. 
National Republican Party, rise of, 366 ; 



Dominations in 1828, 367; nominations 
in 1832, 396. 

National road, appropriations for, 357. 

Natural advantages, 718. 

Naturalization, position of the United 
States in regard to, 4;i. 

Nautilus, the, captured by American 
navy. :i33, note. 

Naval school established at Annapolis. 434. 

Navies, power of maintaining, vested in 
Congress, 253. 

Navigation, effects of introduction of 
screw propeller on, 376 : ocean steam, 
417. 

Navigation Acts, their passage and pur- 
pose, 57,127 ; evasion of, 57. 

Navy, fights with French, 284 ; chastises 
the Barbary States. 300 ; numbers in 
1812, 322 ; brilliant success of, : 31-3:^4 : 
success on the Lakes, i;34 ; abolition of 
flogging in. 388 ; chanpe in, by intro- 
duction of steam vessels, 4.34 ; increase 
in 1861, 511 ; revolution in naval con- 
struction, 532 ; great increase in 1862, 
54S ; increase during Cleveland's ad- 
ministration. 680. 

Navy Department, the, 737. 

Nebraska, formed out of Louisiana terri- 
tory, 301. note ; admitted, 033. 

Negroes, plot by, 108; insurrection in 
Virginia, .389; enlistment of, 549; 
President Johnson's lack of interest in, 
616 ; Southern States' treatment of 
emancipated, 621 ; suffrage, 624. 636, 
640; opposition to suffrage in the South, 
637 ; difficulty of settlfment of race 
question, 675. 

Nevada (ne-vah'd«X part of the Mexican 
territory, 444 ; discovery of silver in, 
487 ; admitted, 593 ; silver production 
of, 663 

New Amsterdam, the Dutch name for 
New York city, 100. 103. 

Newark, N. J., settlement, 111. 

New Brunswick, N, J., concentration of 
British troops at, V-i'i. 

New England, 27 ; Revolution in. 176 ; 
dissatisfaction with the Embargo. 311 ; 
opposed to War of 1812, 323. 

New England Union, 56. 

Newfoundland (nu'fuLd-land), early im- 
portance of fisheries. 10, 11 ; Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert's settlements in, 15. 

New France, 131. 

New Hampshire (Hamp'shur), formation 
of colony, 27 ; claims Vermont. 27, 
note ; royal colonv, 29,45 ; made sepa 
rate colony, 44, 45 ; part of Council of 
Plymouth's grant, 45 ; assigned to John 
Mason, 45 ; origin of the name, 45 ; 
militia at battle of Bennington, 199. 

New Haven (havn), Conn., settlement, 
49. 

New Haven Colony, formation of. 27 ; 
colony united with that of Connecticut, 
27. 

New Jersey, formation of colony, 28 ; 



832 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



royal colony, 29, 110 : taken from tbe 
Dutch by the EngUsh, 110 : origin of 
the name, 110 ; settlement, 111 ; govern- 
ment, ll5i ; College of, ll--' : American 
retreat through, 1^9 ; occupied by 
British, 190 : coast harassed, 209 ; 
copper in. 42tH. 

New Madrid (mad'rid). Mo., 530. 

New Mexico. Spanish discoveries in. 7 ; 
part of toe Mexican territorv, 444 ; 
taken by Gen Kearny, 443 ; claim to, 
surrendered by Texas. 4(V..' ; formation 
of Territory, 462 ; discovery of gold in, 
487. 

New Netherlands, settled by the Dutch. 
lOi) ; taken by the English. lOa ; name 
changed to New York. 103. 

New Orleans (or'le-anz'. La., settlement, 
133 ; in Spanish possession, 14(! ; be- 
comes an American city, 3C1; battle of , 
33G, ;i37: capture of, 53ii. 5''A ; exposi- 
tion at, 674. 

Newport, Christopher, founder of James- 
town. Va , "-.'4. 

Newport, R. I., settlement, .52 : held by 
British, 207 ; American attack on, 2iW ; 
abandoned by British, Mti. note ; ar- 
rival of French army at, 231. 

New South, resources of. 674, 

Newspapers in 1T90. 2110 ; increase in 1S37, 
3S.i : improven:ents in printing and 
news-collecting. 433 ; increase in i860, 
489 ; circulation of, 707 and note. 

New York city, eailv trading posts at 
site of. 21; settled "by the Dutch, 100; 
advatitagesof situation, 104; the negro 
plot, 108; growth. 109: action towards 
importetl tea, l,")9; British expedition 
against. 1S7; battles around. 188; held 
by British, 188; vacated by British, 
237; p(i|iulatioii in 1790. 258; inaugura- 
ti"n of Washington 111.26,5; defence of, 
in War of 1812. :1-j6; gmwth of news- 
papers in, 3'<5; Crystal Palace exhibi- 
tion. 470; opening of Central ParK, 
492; draft riot in. .")67. 

New York State, claims Vermont, 27. 
note; formation of colony, 28; roj-al 
colony. 29; settled by the Dtitcli as 
New Netherlands. 100; the patroon 
system. 101; conquered by the ICnglish, 
102; origin of the name, 103; historv 
under the English, 10.3, 10.5. 106. 108, 
109: size of tlie colony, 103; govern- 
ment, 10.5, lOil; growth of the colony, 
109; northern, explored by Cliain- 
plain. 132; sends .lolin Ja.v, to Conti- 
nental Congress, 171; surrender of 
Western cK.itns, 2)5; military opera- 
tions in, 335; builds Erie Canal. 3.58; 
anti-rentdisturbancesin. 429; residtof 
Free-Soil vote in 1848. 456; electoral 
vote in 18S8. 693. 

Nin<inr(i, the. Perry's flagship. 334. 

Nicaragua, proposed canal across, 680. 

Nichols (nik'uls). Colonel, governor of 
New York, 102. 



Nonconformists, 34. 

Non-Intercourse Act. takes the plac of 
the Embargo, 312; revived against 
Great Biitain, 316. 

Norfolk (nor'fuk), Va , Confederate 
seizure of navy yard. .531. 

Normal scliools. See Edi"CATIon. 

North and .South, rise of division be- 
tween. 351. 

North Car<ilina (see also Carolina). 
early colonies on site of. 17; forma- 
tion of colony. 26; royal colony. 29; 
settlement, 8:j; religious toleration. 81; 
government. 85; surrender of West- 
ern claims, 245; refuses at first to 
ratify the Constitution, 254; ratifies 
Constitution, 269; secession of, 512, 513; 
readmitted, 625. 

North Dakota, formed out of L<»iiisiana 
territory. 301, note; admitted. 6N4. 

Northmen, discoveries of, 4, note. 

Northwest, land claims of eastern 
States, 242; growth of. 271; surrender 
of forts in. l)y British. 2;8. 

Northwestern boundari", decision of the, 
650. 

Northwest Territory ceiled to the United 
States. 245; plan of govertnnent for. 
246; surrendered by Hull. :}24; re- 
gained by the Americans. 324 

Norway, discoveries of. 4. note. 

Nova Scotia, settled by De Monts. 14; 
united to Massachusetts Bay Colony, 
44; named. 140. 

Nullification, doctrine of, 400; applied 
to Charleston harbor. 401; repeal of 
South Carolina Act, 402. 

Office, power of Senate in regard to 
ajipoiiitment to. 732; President's pow- 
er of appoint luent to or removal from, 
739. 

Oglethorpe fo'gl-thorp"). James, foimded 
Georgia, 91 : defeats Spaidarcis. '.)U. 

Ohio, settlement. 213. 26t; claim of Con- 
necticut to. 242; Western Keservation. 
245; formation of State. 246; seclusion 
of, in 1789. 263; outbreak of Indians 
in. 270; growth of, 271. 292; admitted, 
303. 

Ohio Company, the. 136. 

Ohio River, perils of early travel on, 271 ; 
increase of trade on, 379. 

Oil. production of, 700. 

Old Charleston. S. C, settlement. 86. 

■■ Old Dominion,'" the, 71. 

•' Old Hickory." .371. 

"Old Ironsides." 332. 

Ontario, Lake, building of war-ships on, 
334, 

Orders in Council, the. adopted, 338. 

Ordinance of 17^r, 240. 

Oreg in (or'e-'oni. admitted, 4^5. 

Oregon coimtry. explored by Lewis and 
Clarke. 302: "British claim to, 416. 422; 
compromise of dispute with Great 
Britain, 489. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



333 



f^~ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Osceola (6s-e-o'lrti, in Seminole War, 
3r3. 

Otis (o'tis). James, leader of Massachu- 
setts Assembly, 1 0.5. 

Pacific COAST, Drake's explorations, 7; 
compromise of Oregron dispute, "lo.). 

Pacific Railroad, frauds, t)43; completion 
of, U.")l. 

Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'toK battle of, 442. 

Palos (pah'los), Spain. Columbus's point 
of departure, 4. 

Panama (pan-d-mah'j, feelings about 
canal. 680. 

Panic, me.ining: of the term, 407, 40S; of 
1837, 409: of ]8;3, G:>U. 

Paper money, issue and depreciation 
of, 310; issue of screen backs, 0.5O; de- 
preciation in Confeierate States, 56J. 

Paris, peace of, lt6. 

Parks, 709: benefits of, 492. 

Parliament, rising power of English, 30. 

Parties, formation in 1787, 251; only one 
party left in 1780, «72: change of, 46G. 

Patents, powei' to grant. y.'iS ; increase in 
number, 280; value of, 488. 

Patroon system, introduced by 'the 
Dutch, 100. 

Peace, between England and United 
States, 23.'5, 2.3G: natural condition of 
American people. 7l3. 

Peace of Paris, 146. 

Peacock, the, captured by American 
navv. 333, note. 

Pea Ridge, battle of, 520, 548. 

Peekskill, N, Y., fortification of, 188; 
Washington's position at, 207. 

Peel, Sir Robert, introduces pohce sys- 
tem, 492, note. 

Pemberton, Gen. J. C., in command at 
VicksburfjTh, 557. 

Pendleton, George H.. nominated for 
Vice president. 592. 

Pendleton Civil Service Act. 672. 

Penguin, the, captured by American 
navy, 333. note. 

Peninsula, McClellan's campaign on the, 
5:36, 537. 

Penn, William, transfer of Swedish 
colony to, 22: obtains grant of land 
for colony, 113: founds a colony as a 
refuge for Quakers, 113; treatment 
of Indians, 114: wise government of 
colony. 114: settles Philadelphia, 115; 
purchases Delaware, 117. 

Pennsylvania, formation of colony, 28; 
proprietary colony, 29; granted to 
WiUiam Penn, 113; a place of refuge 
for the Quakers, 113; origin of the 
name, 114: government: 114: treat- 
ment of Indians. 114: religious tolera- 
tion. Ill; growth, llfi: University of, 
115; sends Morris and Franklin to Con- 
tinental Congress. 171: claim of Con- 
necticut to. 242 ; Whiskey Insurrection 
in, 276; iron in. 4JS; anthracite coal in. 
428; discovery of petroleum, 487. 



Pensions, Cleveland's opposition to un- 
necessary. 687. 
Peoria (pe-o'ri-a), early French fort, 

134. 
Pequots (pe'kwotz). a Connecticut tribe 

of Indians, 48: war with settlers, 48 
Perry, Capt. Oliver H., victory on Lake 

Erie, 331, 
Perry, Commodore M. C , opens up 

Japan. 473. 
Perr.wille. battle of, 526 
Perth Amboy, N J,, sottlement. 111. 
Peru (pe-roo"), Spanish conquests in, 7. 
Petersiiurgh. Va.. Cornwallis at. 230; 
siege of. .575, 570, 608: fall of, 600. 

Petition, right of, impeded by Congress, 
415. 

Petroleum, discovery of, 487. 

Philadelphia. Pa., settlement, 115; ori- 
gin of the name, 115. note: growth, 
116; action towards imported tea, 
1-59; meeting of first Continental Con- 
gress. 162; meeting of second Conti- 
nental Congress. 171; Congress aban- 
dons. 100: Washington's defence of. 
194: captured by Howe, 195; Clinton 
succeeds Howe at. 206; Washington 
and Rochambeau pass through, 233; 
population in 1790. 2.'>8; Bank of the 
United States at, 267: threatened by 
Lee, .545; business paralyzed by Lee's 
advance, .553: Exposition at, 6"i5. 

Philip, King, his struggle against the 
whites, .58. 

Pierce (peerse or purse), Franklin, elect- 
ed President, 468: administration of, 
459-48.'. 

Pilgrim Covenant, the. 37. 

Pilgrims, hardships of, :i5. 

Pitt, WiUiam. policy of, 141. 

Pittsburgh, Pa., Indian fight on site of, 
138; the Whiskey Insurreotion, 276 
first steamboat on Ohio River, 305 
railroad riots at, 662. 

Pittsburgh Landing (Shiloh). battle of. 
5J3, .524, .548, 606. 

Plantations, in Southern colonies, 95. 

Plattsburgh, N. Y., hattl-" of, 334. 

Plymouth ( phm'uth), Mass., settlement, 
34. 

Plymouth. Council of. succeeds Ply- 
mouth Company, 25; disbanded, 25. 

Plymouth Colony, formation of, 27, 34; 
united with Massachusetts Bay, 27, 44. 

Plymouth Company, establishment of, 
19; failure, 24; broken up. 25. 

Pocahontas (po-k«-hon'tas), daughter of 
Powhatan. 68. 

Poe. E. A., literary work of. 386. 

Police system, introduction of, 492 and 
note. 

Polk vpoke"*, James K . elected President, 
430; administration of, 432-4.56. 

Polygamy, legislatiiin against. 673. 

Poritiac (pon'ti ak). League of, 145; attack 
on Detroit, 145. 

Pope, Gen. John, campaign before 



334 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



J^^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Washington, 536. 544 ; defeated at sec 
ond buttle of Bull Kiin, 544. 

Population, of colonies in 1748, 62; in 
Koiithein colonies, 94: of Soutbern 
colonies contrasted with that of New 
England, 'JS; at end ci colonization, 
125; in 1763, 149; in 1810, 320; in 1820, 
349; rapid increase in free States, a.^; 
in 1830, 380; in 1840, 413; in ia5u. 467; 
increase during Pierce's administra- 
tion, 469; in 1660, 486; in 18^0, 6,'')2; in 
1880, 660; growth of, 701; probable 
increase of, 719. 

Port Hudson, La., strong Confederate 
position at, ."iSS; Banks assigned to 
attack. 5,56; movement against, 556, 
5.58; surrender of. .558. 

Port Royal. N. S., a French stronghold, 
taken and kept by the English, 6f. 

Port Royal, S. C, French settlement at, 
13; capture of, 51 1; United States 
secures harbor in, 520. 

Portsmouth, N. H.. settlement, 45. 

Portsmouth, R. I., settlement, .52. 

Portugal, discoveries of, 4; agreement 
with Spain. 9. 

Post-offlce. colonial, 119. 

Potomac, Army of. See Army of Poto- 
mac. 

Powhatan (pow-ha-tan'), an Indian chief 
of Virginia. 68. 

Prescott. W. H.. literary work of, 3S6. 

President, how elected. 738; duties of, 
739; war powers of, 740; veto power 
of. 741. 

President, the, captured by the British, 
333, note. 

Presidential succession, 661, 742. 

Prima Vista (pre'ma vees'tn), 10. 

Princeton, N. J., capture of British 
troops at, V.il. 

Pring, Martin, exploration of New Eng- 
land, IK. 

Printing, influence of, 3, 7; Hoe's inven- 
tion, 432. 

Printing-press, introduction of, 115. 

Prisoners, Confederate views on ex- 
change of, 5S)4. 

Prison-ships, cruelties on. 209. 

Prison system, reformation of, 3S8. 

Privateers, 149; services during Revolu- 
tion, 216; refusal to allow France to fit 
out, 275; in War of 1812,333; building 
of Confederate, ,551 : ravages of Con- 
federate, .569; destruction of the Ahi- 
hama, the Florida, and the Georgia, 
.590. 

Proprietary colonies, 29. , 

Protection, flrst, demand for, WO; defini- 
tion, and argument for, 359: adopted 
by Congress in 1824, 360; suiijioried by 
Clay and Adams, 362; opi)osition to, 
36:5-165; Southern opposition to, 398; 
. tariff of 1842, 421 ; influence of war 
tariff on, 564; effects of. 6"; opposi- 
tion to. 690. See also Free Trade; 
Revenue; Tariff, 



Providence. R. I., settlement, origin of 
the name, 52. 

Providence Colony, formation of, 27: 
united with Rhode Island, 27. 

Public schools. See Education. 

Pidaski (pu-las'kl) Casiniir. joins Amer- 
ican army, 193; killed at Savatmah, 
220. 

Puiitans, the, 31, 38. 

Quakers, persecution of, 42: why per- 
secuted in England, 113; Pennsylvania 
an asylum for, 113. 

Quebec (kwe-bekM, fouudt'd, 13; Charr.- 
plaln's settlement at, 14; expedition 
against, 142; siege and capture of. 
142. 143. 

Queen Anne's war, 60. 

Railroads, introduction of, 368; effect of 
invention of locomotive on, 368, .372; 
first locomotive in America, 373; effect 
on American people, 374; increa.se and 
advantages of, in 1829, 374; increase in 
1850,407; increase in 1860.491; extrav- 
agant building of, 6")6: strikes in 1877, 
6(52; mileage in ]88ti, 705. 

Raleigh (raw'II), N. C, origin of name. 
17, note. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, character, 16; intro- 
duces tobacco into England, 16: influ- 
ence of, 16: colonies of, 16 and note. 17. 

Ran<lolph, Edmund, Attorney General, 
266. 

Rappahannock River, boundary of Lon- 
don Compan}'"s grant, 19; crossed by 
Bmnside, 547. 

Rawdon, Lord, in command of British in 
South Carolina, 228. 

Reaping-machine, invention of, 377. 

Reconstruction, 618 et seq.; principal 
subject in Presidential election of 1868, 
628; completion of, 635; failure of. 640; 
end of reconstructed governments. 
648. 

Reconstruction .\cts. 62.3. 624. 

Red River. Banks's e.xpedition on, 586. 

Kegulatois. the. fight Governor Tryon. 
85. 

Reindeer, the, captured by American 
navy, 333. note. 

Religion, 70S. 

Religious difficulties. 41. 

Religious persecution. 34. 41. 

Religious toleration in Maryland. 78: in 
North Carolina, 84; in Soiith Carolina, 
89; in Pennsylvania, 114. 

Representation, connection with taxa- 
tion, 153; resistance to legislation with- 
out, 161; in Federal Government, 731. 

Republic, rise of the, 169. 

Republican form of government guar- 
anteed hy Constitution, 253. 

Republican Party of 1792. formation and 
purpose. 272, 273; opposes Bank of 
United States, 273; opposes Alien and 
Sedition laws, 286; obtains control of 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



335 



tS^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



the government in 1801, 398; opposes 
the Embargo, 311; success in 1808, 313; 
change of views of, 339; the only party 
left in 18~'0, 343, 348. 

Republican Party of 1856, formation of, 
477; defeated in 18i6, 48J; nominations 
in 18G0, 499; success in 1800, 500; suc- 
cess in 18f;4, 592; supports Johnson, 
616; interest in freedinen, 616; success 
in 1868. 628; success in 1880, 670; nom- 
inations in 1884, 678; views as to tariff 
in 1887, 689; success in 1888. 693. 

Repudiation, 412. 

Resaca, bai tie of, 578. 

Resaca de la Palma Cra-sah'kah da lah 
pahl'mah), battle of. 442. 

Restoration, the English, 32, 34, note. 

Returning boards. 645. 

Revenue tariff, meaning of the term, 3.19; 
passed in 1846, 437. See also Free 
Trade; Protection; Tariff. 

Revolution, American, birth of, 164-168. 

Revolution, English, 33 

Rhode Island, formation of colony, 27 ; 
united with Providence, 27 ; self-gov- 
ernment, 29 ; founded, 41 ; settlement, 
52: charter. 53 ; religious toleration. 54; 
refused admittance to New England 
Union, 56 ; refuses to ratify the Consti- 
tution, 2.54 : ratifies Constitution, 269 ; 
Dorr Rebellion, 4:29. 

Rice, in South Carolina, 87: trade in, 126. 

Richmond, Va., capital of Confederate 
States, 513 ; fortification of. 518 ; Mc- 
Clellan's designs against, 537 ; siege of, 
576 ; fall of. 60i>. 

Rio Grande (re'o grahn'da), demonstra- 
tion on, against French occupation of 
Mexico, 630. 

Riots, draft, 567. 

Ripley, Gen. E. W., reorganizes the 
army. 325. 

Rivers, the American System, 362. 

Roads, turnpikes. 280 ; in 1812. 321 ; the 
American System, 362 ; improvement 
during Pierce's administration, 469 

Roanoke (ro-n-noke') Island, N. C, Ra- 
leigh's colony on, 17. 24: contemplated 
settlement on, 24 ; capture of. 533, .548. 

Rocharabeau, (roshanh(g)-b6'). Count 
de, lands with army at Newport. 231. 

Rocky Mountains, discovery of gold in, 
487. 

Rome, N. Y., formerly Fort Schuyler, 199. 

Rosecrans (roze'krans). Gen. William S., 
supplants Buell, 527 ; position near 
Murfreesboro, 5.56; defeated at Chicka- 
mauga. 5.")9. 

" Rough and Ready,'' 464. 

Round neads. 31. 

Royal colonies, 29. 

Rubber, invention of vulcanized, 432. 

Rush, Richard, nominated for Vice- 
presidency, 367. 

Sacramento i^sak-rn-men'to) River, dis- 
Qovery of gold on, 457, 



St. Augustine (aw-gus-teen'), Fla., 
founded, 7, note ; French settlement 
at, 13 ; capture of, 533. 

St. Clair, Gen., expedition against 
Indians, 270. 

St. Lawrence, Gulf of, discovered. 11. 

St. Lawrence River, discovered, 11 ; 
French settlements on, 14. 

St. Louis (loa'Is), Mo., settlement, 146, 
note ; railroad riots at, 662. 

St. Mary's, settlement, 76. 

Salem (sa'lem), Mass., settlement, 38; 
witchcraft delusion, 43. 

Salt, produced at Syracuse, 428. 

Samoa, disputes with Germany about, 
680. 

Sandusky (san-dus'kl), O., naval engage- 
ment off. 334. 

Sandy Hook, N. J., concentration of 
British tronps near, 192 ; embarkation 
of British troops from, 206. 

San Francisco, rapid growth of, 458. 

Sanitary Commissions, formation of, 566 

San Jacinto (j(t-sin'to), battle of, 4:ii3. 

San Salvador (sahn sahl-vahdore'), 
named by Columbus, 5. 

Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, fights 
battle of Buena Vista, 445 ; in battle of 
Cerro Gordo. 447 ; proposes terms of 
peace, 448 ; flight of, 450. 

Santa F6 (san'ta fe), founded, 7, note. 

Saratoga, N. Y., Burgoyne's surrender 
at, 201. 

Sassafras, influence on exploration, 18. 

Savage's Station, battle of, 5j3. 

Savannah. Ga., settlement 92 ; captured 
by British. 220 ; attempted recapture, 
220 ; retained by British, 229 ; vacated 
by British, 237 ; Federal capture of. 

Savannah, the, crosses the Atlantic by 
steam, 417. 

Say brook. Conn., settlement, 47. 

Schenectady (sken-ek'trt-di), N. Y., a 
frontier settlement. li'3. 

Schools. !See Education 

Schuyler (skl'ler). Gen. Philip, invades 
Canada, 180 ; captures Montreal, 180 ; 
defence of Ticonderoga, 197. 198. 

Scott, Dred, case of. 495. 

Scott. Gen. Winfleld, reorganizes the 
army, 325 ; captures Vera Cruz. 446 ; 
in battle of Cerro Gordo, 447 ; nomi- 
nated for President. 408 ; in command 
of Union armies, 516. 

Screw propeller, introduction of, 376. 

Search, right of, asserted by Great 
Britain, 308; case of the Trent. 522. 

Secession, strong hold of principle in 
Southern States. 399; rise of feeUng 
for, 482; South Carolina passes ordi- 
nance ot secession, 501 ; Georgia, Flor- 
ida. Alabama. Mississippi. Louisiana, 
and Texas pass ordinance of, 501 ; of 
Virginia. North Carolina. Tennessee, 
and Arkansas, 512; repeal of ordinance 
of, 619. 



386 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Sections, the, sectional feeling, 460, 465; 
sectional feeling extended to religious 
bodies, 474 ; their positions as to Kan- 
sas-Nebraska Act. 476^DS1. 

Sedition law. 396. 

Self-government. SO. 37, 51 ; in Virginia, 
71; British attempts to destroy. I6i); 
provision for. in Ordinance of 1787, 
346; growth of system of, 246. 

Seminary Ridge. Confederate position at 
Gettysburgh, .')54. 

Seminole (sem'I-uol-O War, 383. 

Senate, action on admission of Missouri, 
353; ratifies treaty of Mexico, 451; re- 
fuses to admit Kansas, 481; attack on 
Sumner in Senate chamber. 481; con- 
stitution and powers of, 733. 

Separatists. 34, 3S. 

Servants, indentured, 94, 606. 

Seven Days' battles, 543. 

Seven Pmes, Va.. battle of, 540. 

Sewing-machine invented. 433. 

Seymour (Se'mur), Horatio, nominated 
tor President. 638. 

Shan lion, the, captures the Chesapeake, 
333. 

Sharpsburgh, ^\d.. 546. 

Shays's Rebellion, 349, 351. 

Shenandoah (shen-(in do'ah) Valley. 
StonewallJaekson in. 541; Lee's move- 
ments through. 553; defended by Sher- 
idan, .577. 

Sheridan, Gen. Philip H.. movement 
against Lee, 573 ; ride from Winchester, 
577; movement on Richmond, 598; in 
battle of Five Forks, 59!l. 

Sherman. Gen. AVilliam T., friendship 
with Grant, .538; with Grant in opera- 
tions against Vicksburgh, 556; left in 
command of the West. .572; pursuit of 
Johnston, 578; difticuliv of supplying 
army, 578; pursuit of Hood, 581; state 
of his army, .5S3; burns Atlanta, .583; 
march to the sea, .583-58'i. 608; his 
northward march, .596. 609; action 
against Johnston, .597; receives John- 
ston's surrender, 603 

Sbiloh. See Pittsbcrgh Landing 

Ship Island. Miss., seizure of. 51 1 ; United 
States secures harbor in, 530; expedi- 
tion to. ."^34. 

Ship^ling, increa-oeof, in 1763. 149; British 
attitude towards American. 154. 183; 
Navigation Acts. 149. 1.54; British seiz- 
ures of American. 378; prosperity in 
179.5, 280; British and French injuries 
to American, 308-31ii. 

Silver, discovery of. 487; weakh of Ne- 
vada. 593; decrease in value. 663; de- 
monetiz ition. 664; remonetization. 665; 
production, 700. 

Sirnis, the, crosses the Atlantic by steam, 
417. 

Six Nations. 6, note. 

Six years' struggle, the. 1.57. 

Slavery, in Virginia, 70; in South Caro- 
lina, 88; in Georgia, 93; first in Virginia, 



124; effects of, 124; forbidden in North- 
west Territory. 346; influence of cotton- 
gin on, y^l, 351; rise of angry feelmgs 
about. 351 ; di.sa])pearauce in Northern 
States. 351; ti:e .\lissouri Compromise, 
3.>4; effect on manufactures, 364; ef- 
fect of the Missouri Compromise, 369; 
proposal to abolish, WJ (see also Abo- 
litionists) : negro insurrection in Vir- 
ginia. 3S9; in the Mexican acquisition, 
453; rise of the Fiee Soil Party, 455; 
difficulties of 1S,50. 461; compromise 
of 18.50, 463; in the District of Co- 
lumbia, 463; influence on public af- 
fairs, 474; hindrance to prosperity 
of the South, 493; the Dred Scoit case, 
435; John Brown's raid in Virginia, 
497; platform of Republican Party in 
18tH), 499; platform of Southern Demo- 
crats in 18tio. 499; platform of North- 
ern Democrats in 1n60, 499; platform of 
American Party in 1860. 499; issue of 
first Emancipation Proclamation. .549; 
i«sue of final Emancipation Proclama- 
tion, .549; former ooligation to surren- 
der fugitive slaves, 745. 

Sliilell, .John, seizure, imprisonment, and 
liberation of, 533, 

Sioat, Commodore, seizes California, 
443, 

Smith, Capt. John, explorations, 27; 
his career, 68, 

Smith, Joseph, founds Mormon Church, 
484; his fate. 484. 

Smiihsonian Institution, founded, 435. 

Soto. Heniaiulo de. expedition, 8 ; dis- 
covers Mississippi River, 8; death, 8. 

South, the solid. OIK. 

South Ainnrira. discovered by Colum- 
bu.s, 6; Spanish jiossessioris in. 7. 

South and North, rise of division be- 
tween. 351. 

South Carolina, formation of colony, 26; 
a royal colony, 29; settlement. 86; 
products, 87; slavery, 88; religions 
toleration. 89; government, 90; viros- 
perity of, 90; British attack on Charles- 
ton repelled, 18.3; British conquest of. 
233; reconquered, 339; surrender of 
Western claims, 245; opposition to 
protection, 398; adopts nullification, 
4tK); repeals nullification, 403; passes 
ordinance of sncession. .501 ; move- 
ment against Fort Sumter, 505; read- 
mitted, 635. 

South Dakota, formed out of Louisiana 
territory. 301, note; admitted, 684, 

Southern States, British campaign 
against, 307, 219; backwardness in 
]8i'i0. 493. 

South Mountain, battle of, 546. 

Spain, aids Columbus, 4; discoveries of, 
.5-8; possessions, 7; agreement with 
Portugal, 9: war with England, 15; al- 
lied with France. 146, 305. note; surren- 
ders .American territory to England, 
146; regains Florida, 23(5; treaty with. 



PBONOUNCINQ INDEX. 



337 



' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



277; cession of United States, f laini to 
Texas to, 301. note, 355; sells Florida, 
355; refuses to sell Cuba, 47"4. 

Spanish America, 7. 

Spartanburg:, battle near, 235. 

Specie circular, the, 407. 

Specie payment, resumption of, 666. 

Spottsylvania, Va., battle of, f)73. 

Springfield, 111., Lincoln's burial at, 613. 

Stamp Act, 132, 155; repeal of, 155. 

Stamp Act Congress, 155. 

Stamlish, Miles, 36. 

Stanton, removed by Jolinson, 626. 

Stark, Gen. John, at battle of Benning- 
ton, 199. 

Star of the West, the, fired on, 505. 

" Star-Spangled Banner," the, 328, note. 

State Depaitment, the, 737. 

State government, 1^5, 723, 728, 729. 

Stateu (stat'n) Island, seized by British, 
187. 

States, restrictions of action under Con- 
stitution, 253; power to maintain order 
ill, vested in Congress. 253; Republi- 
cans inclined to favor, 273; sovereignty 
of, 728. 729, and note; government of, 
730; poweis denied to, 735; interstate 
relations, 745; admission of, 746; dates 
of formation of. Appendix III ; growth 
of. Appendix IV. 

States and territories, number in 1890, 
246, note. 

States' rights, 296, 729; effect of war 
with Great Britain upon the doctrine 
of, 296; logical deduction of right of 
secession, .399; strength of d<ictrine in 
the South, 460; influence of slavery on, 
502. 

Steam, increased use for power. 304. 

Steamboats, Fulton's invention, 305; put 
to use on American rivers, 305; build 
up new States, 305: effect on popula- 
tion, 349; effect of introduction on the 
West, 379; increase in 1850, 467. 

Stephens, Alexander H., elected Vice- 
president of Confederate States. 503. 

Stephenson, George, invents locomotive, 
368. 

Steuben (stoi'ben). Baron von, joins 
American array, 193. 

Stillwater, N. Y., battle of, 201. 

Stockton, Commodore, seizes California, 
443. 

Stone, Rev. Samuel, 40, 46. 

Stone River, Tenn , battle of, .527. 

Stony Point. N. Y., capture of, 214. 

Strikes, railroad, in 1877, 662 

Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), Peter, last 
Dutch governor of New Netherlands, 
102. 

Sub-treasury system, the, 411; re-estab- 
lished. 437. 

Summaries, chronological, 12, 23, 129, 148, 
168. 239, 256, 294, 314, 345, 370, 419, 469, 
483, 507, 615, 658, 694; military. 548, 561, 
589, 604-611. 

Bumner, Charles, attack on, 481. 



Sumter, G«n. Thomas, revolutionary 

leader in South Carolina, 223. 
Supeiior, Lake, evploia'ion of, 427. 
Supreme Court of the United States, 743 
Surplus, the, 688, 689. 
Swanzey (swon'zi), Mass., attacked by 

Indians, 58. 
Sweden, establishes colony, 22. 
Syracuse, N. Y., salt mines at, 428. 

Tariff, protective tariff of 1824, 359; 
Southern opposition to, 398; Compro- 
mise Tariff of 1833,402; protective tariff 
of 1842, 421 ; tariff of 1846, 437; increase 
of, during the RebeUion. .'564. 

Tariff Commission, the, 677, 688. See 
also Frse Trade; Protection; Rev- 
enue. 

TarletoD, Major, British cavalry officer, 
223. 

Tarrytown, N. Y., capture of Andr^near, 
21.5 

Taxation, British greed for, 151, 1.52; 
connection with representation, 153, 
1.58; on commerce, 156; the tea ques- 
tion, 158; increase of, during the war, 
564; principles of, 727; taxes under the 
Constitution, 253: taxes imposed by 
Congress, 267. 

Taylor, Gen. Zachary, takes possession 
of Brownsville. 440; drives Mexicans 
across the Rio Grande. 442; seizes 
Matamoras, 442; fights battle of Mon- 
terey. 445; fights battle of Buena Vista, 
445; returns to United States, 445; 
elected President, 445.456; administra- 
tion of, 460-468; death, 464. 

Tea, tax on, 122, 156.158; '-boycotted," 
156; Boston Tea Party, 159. 

Tecumseh ite-kum'se), defeated at Tip- 
pecanoe, 317; kiUed at battle of the 
Thames, 324. 

Telegraph, invention of the electric, 426; 
effects of invention, 426; increase of 
lines in 1860, 491 ; cable communication 
with Europe, 631; mileage of, in 1887, 
705. 

Telephone, perfection of. 661. 

Tennessee, settlements in, 213. 263; for- 
mation of State, 246; admitted, 269: 
growth of, 292; troops in Creek War, 
•335; secession, 512. 513; Grants move- 
ments in, .523; Union success in, 5-18; 
Hood's movement towards, 581 ; An- 
drew Johnson, governor of, 616; read- 
mitted, 622. 

Tennessee River, Grant's actions on. 523; 
battle of Pittsburgh Landing, 524. 

Tenure of Office Act, the, 626; repealed, 
687. 

Territories, the, bones of contention be- 
tween North and South, 494; rights of , 
746. See also States. 

Terry, Gen. Alfred, captures Fort Fisher, 
588. 

Texas, cession to Spain of United States 
claim to, 301, note, 355; becomes part 



338 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



IW The references are to Sections, not to pages 



of Mt^xico, but settled by American 
citizens, 4-iii ; intiependeiice of, 4:^3; 
proposed annexation of, 4--i4; annexa- 
tion of, question iii I'residential elec- 
tion of l»4t, 4;W ; annexation, -iSl ; ad- 
raitte I. ^iU 4;iS: surrenders claim to 
New Mexico, 46.J; secession, 501, 513; 
refuses reconstruction, 035; readmit- 
ted, 63); extent of tenitory, 6(9. 

Thames (temz), battle of the, 324. 

Thirteenth Amendment, ratified, 619, 
620. 

Thomas, Gen. George H., besieged at 
Chattanooga, 5.59; movement towards 
Nashville, .581; defeats Hood, .582. 

Thurman. Allen G , nominated for Vice- 
president, 693. 

Ticonderoga (ti-kon-de-ro'ga), N. Y., 
British defeated by Montcalm at, 141; 
abandoned by French, 142 ; captured 
by Ethan Allen, 179 ; captured by Bur- 
goyne. 19T. 

Tililen, Samuel J., nominated for Presi- 
dent. 614. 

Tippecanoe (tip-pe-ka-noo'), battle of, 
317. 

Titiisville, Pa., discovery of petroleum 
at, 4S7. 

Tobacco, source of wealth: to Virginia, 
69; to Maryland, 76; to the colonies in 
general, 126. 

Toledo O., Indian defeat near. 270. 

To'iipkins, Dan.el D., elected Vice presi- 
dent, 3H ; reelected Vice-president, 
3;8. 

Topeka. Ala., battle of, 335. 

Tories, origin of nam*^. 1.57; treatment 
of, 209; ill the South, 221 ; ultimate fate 
of. 2:iS. 

Town government, 72.3. 725. 

Tra<1e, Board of, formation and object, 
127. 

Travel, difficulties of early, 64, 261. See 
also Roads. 

Treasury Department. 737. 

Treaty, the Mississippi. 277 ; Jay's. 278 ; 
of Gnent. 33S; Mexican. 451; of Wash- 
ington. 619: with (^hina in 18S0, 668 ; 
powers of the St^natn in regard to, 732. 

Trent, the. stoppage of. .522. 

Trenton, N. J., captured by Washington, 
191. 

Tripoli, piracies of. 300; war with, 300. 

Trusts, organization of. 691. 

Tryon, Governor William, 85. 

Tunis (tu'iils). piracies of, .300. 

Turnpike roads. S^e Roads. , 

Tuscarora^(tus-ka-ro'ras), driven to New 
York. 97. 

Tyler. John, elected Vice-presidt^nt, 418; 
becomes President by Harrison's 
death. 4.'0; quarrels with Whig Party, 
421; makes unsuccessful treaty of an- 
nexation with Texas, 424. 

Union, growth toward, in colonie's, 123; 
preservation of, object of the war, 611. 



United Colonies, name of, 169; first flag 
of, 177; merged into United States, 185. 

United States, begiimiug of history of, 
169; inception of the name, 1H5; fir.-t 
recognized as nation, 204; become a 
nation, 240; the ArticlfS of Confedera- 
tion, 243; failure of Articles, 244; the 
Constitution formed. 2.52, 25;i. Appendix 
II; position in 1789, 257, 263; country 
life in. 2.59; recognition of nationality 
by foreign powers, 295; rise of naval 
power, 3:i3; growth of, 369, 413; growth 
of eastern section, 378; growth in the 
West. 379; increase of wealth, 387; 
social changes, :i8S; tone in foreign 
affairs, :W0; settlement of claims by 
France, 390; condition during Tyler's 
administration, 429; territorial growth, 
4.52; growth during Pierce's admin- 
istration, 469; naturalization ques- 
tions, 471; offers to purchase t:uba, 
472; wonderful increase of popula- 
tion ill 1800, 486; mineral resources, 
487; condition of the country in 1860, 
491; improvements in cities, 492; se- 
cession, 501; seizure of forts, etc., 
by Southern States, 504: hesitancy in 
acting on secession. 506; refuses to 
recognize Confnderate government, 
514; foreign relatiotis. 521: deprecia- 
tion of currency. .563 ; prosperity in 
North and West. 563; effect of contin- 
uance of the war, .591 ; end of the war, 
602; summary of events of the war. 604- 
611; cost of the war, 610; object of tlie 
war, 611: restoring oi'der in Southe''n 
States, 618, 619; appointment of mili- 
tary governors in Southern States. 624; 
war ilebt. 629; disorders in the South, 
6:^7; Federal control of elections in the 
South. 639: increase of population in 
1870. 6.52; perioii of peace and prosper- 
ity, 6.59; increase in p 'pulation and 
wealth. 600; pays off national delit. 667; 
general prosperity. 674: improvement 
in the South. 674; enactment of Presi- 
dential Succession Act. 681 : enactment 
of Electoral Count Act, 682; extraor- 
dinary growth of. 695; pectiliarity of, 
696; contrasted with France, 696: re- 
sistance to Britisli rule. 697; growth of 
the nation. 699; extent of territory, 
• 699; natural advantages. 700: possibil- 
ities of popul.ition, 701 ; possibilities of 
manufactures, 701 ; a nation of peace. 
703; military power of. 701; railroads 
and telesiaphs in, 705; reduction of 
national debt, 706; education. 707. 714: 
newspapers. 707, and note; relieion,708; 
benevolence. 709; national wealth, 710; 
state of the comitry, 711; causes of 
growth. 712-718: compared with Span- 
ish colonies. 712; a working nation. 715; 
a nation of energy, 716: possibilities 
of the future, 719; daneer of misgov- 
ernment. 7'20; responsibility of the peo- 
ple, 721; forms under which the coun- 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



339 



f^^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



try has been proverned, 723; the three 
forms of government under the Coii- 
stituiion, 723; individual libtyty aud 
restraints, 724; Federal Governuient, 
731; supreme law of the land, 748; suc- 
cess of the Constitution, 749. 

United States Supreme Court, Dred 
Scott case, 495. 

Uplandt (oop'lahnt). Pa., 115. 

Utah (yoo'tali) Territory, part of the 
Mexican Territory, 444; Mormon set- 
tlements and troubles in, 484; legisla- 
lation on subject of polygamy, 673; 
formation of Territory, 4(52. 

Valley Fokge, Pa., Washington's win- 
ter quarters at. 196. 

Van Buren, Martin, elected Vice-presi- 
dent, 396: elected President, 403; ad- 
ministration of, 406-417; policy of, 410, 
411, renominated for President, 418; 
opposed to annexation of Texas, 430; 
nominated for President by Free-Soil 
Party, 456. 

Vane, Sir Henry, 40. 

Venice, birthplace of John Cabot, 10. 

Vera Cruz (va'rali kroos), capture of, 446. 

Vermont, dual claim to, 27, note; early 
historj', 55; Burgoyne's expedition 
against, 199; admitted, 269. 

Vespucci (ves-poot'che), Amerigo, gives 
name to America. 6. 

Veto power, the, 669, 741. 

Vice-president, duties, and succession to 
Presidency, 742. 

Vicl<sburgl), Miss., Grant's first attempt 
on. 528; strong Confederate position 
at, 535; movements against. 556, 558; 
siege and capture of. .558. 607. 

Vincennes (vin-senz'), Ind., captured by 
Clarke. 213. 

Virginia, founded by Ral^'igh, 36: note, 
17: origin of name, 17: White's Colony, 
17; beginnings of colony, 24; forma- 
tion of colony. 26; royal colon.v. 29, 71 ; 
first legislative assembly in, 37: first 
settlement. 67; character of settlers, 
67: John Smith, 68; cultivation of 
tobacco in. 69; plantations in, 70; 
life in. 70; slavery. 70: contrasted with 
New England. 70; self-government in, 
71; the "Old Dominion." 71; troubles 
with the Indians. 72, 73; Bacon's Rebel- 
lion, 73; clnim to territory. 74; sends 
Henry, Jefferson, and Washington to 
Continental Congress. 171; land claims 
of Eastern States, 242: surrendt-r of 
Western claims. 245; calls for the Fed- 
eral Convention, 251 ; whiskey insur- 
rection in. 276; negro insurrection in, 
389; .John Brown's raid, 497; secession 
of, 512, 513; battle-ground of the war, 
513; parts held by Federal Govern- 
ment. .514; military activity in, 518; 
campaigns in, 5.36; admission of West 
Virginia, 568; refuses reconstruction, 
635; readmitted, 635. 



Virginia City, Nev., discovery of silver 

at, 487. 
Volunteers, enrollment of, 548. 

Wampajjoags (wom-pa-no'agz), the, 538. 

War Department, the, 737. 

Warner, Seth, at battle of Bennington, 
199. 

War of 1812, 295, 318; results of, 339. 

War power, the, 253, 740. 

Warren, Gen., killed at Bunker Hill, 176, 
note. 

Wars, early, of southern colonies, 96; 
French and Indian, 138-148. 

Warwick (wor'rik), R. I., settlement, 
52. 

Washington, D. C, removal of national 
capital to. 291 ; burned by the British, 
327; fortification of, 518; saved to the 
Union, 520; Pope's campaign before, 
536; threatened danger to, 537; grand 
review in, 603. 

Washington, treaty of, 649. 

Washington, George, sent on mission to 
French, 137; surrender of, 138; covers 
Braddock's retreat. 140; delegate to 
Continental Congress, 171 : character 
of, 173; appointed commander-in- 
chief. 175; organizes army, 177; seizes 
Dorchester Heights, 178; enters Bos- 
ton, 178; takes command of New 
York, 187; retreat from New York, 
188; crosses the Delaware. 189; dimi- 
nution of his army. 190; in winter 
quarters at Morristown. 191, 192; de- 
fenils Philadelphia. 194; at Valley 
Forge, 106; at battle of Monmouth, 
206; holds Rritish in New York city, 
207; his difficulties, 2.32; marches to 
Yorktown 233; besieges and captures 
it, 234; resigns commission, 237; favors 
Federal Convention. 251 ; made Presi- 
dent of Federal Convention, 2.52; unan- 
imou.sl.y elected President, 255; useful- 
ness of, 262; elected President. 265; 
inauguration of. 265; first cabinet. 266; 
requests recall of Genet, 275; sup- 
presses whiske.y insurrection, 276; 
unanimously re-elected, 279; issues 
his farewell address. 279, Appendix 
VI; recalled to head of army, 284; 
death, 293. 

Washington, State, admitted, 684. 

Washington Territory, United States, 
claim to. 302. 

Water supply in 1790, 258. 

Water-works, benefits of. 492. 

Wayne (wane). Gen. A^'hony, captures 
Stony Point, 214; defeats Indians in 
Ohio, 270. 

Wealth, of colonies at end of coloniza- 
tion period. 126; national. 710. 

Webster. Daniel, prominence of, 347. 

Western Reservation, the, 245. 

West India Company (Dutch), grants to. 
21; establishes New Amsterdam and 
New Netherlands, 21. 



340 



PRONOUNCING INDEX. 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



West Indies, discovered by Columbus, 

5; orifjin of the name, 6. 
West Virginia, saved lo the Union, 520; 
organization of State, 517; admitted, 
SOS. 
Wethersfleld, Conn., settlement, 46. 
Wheat, prodiiciion of, 700. 

Wheeler, William A., nominated for 
Vice-president, fr44; declared elected 
bv Electoral Commission, B47. 

Whig Party, origin of name, 157; in the 
South, 221 ; rise of, 36b, 397; defeated 
in 1836, 403; quarrel with President 
Tyler, 421; iioiiiiuates Clay and Fre- 
linghuyseu, 430; opposes declaration 
of war against Mt'xico. 441 ; carries 
election of 1848, 456; sections in, 466; 
goes to pieces, 466; in election of 
1852, 468: cause of death of, 468, note. 

Whiskey frauds, 643. 

Whiskey insurrection, the, 276. 

Wliite, John, Virginia colony under, 17 
and note. 

Whitefleld (whit'feeld), George, revival- 
ist. 119. 

White race, the, 1, 2. 

Whitney. Eli. invents cotton-gin, 281. 

Whittier .John G., literary work of, 386. 

Wildcat banks, 406. 

Wilderness, Va., battles of the, 573, 608. 

William and Mary, 33. 

William and Mary College, founded, 
70. 

Williams, Roger, persecution of, 41 ; 
driven from Massachusetts, settles in 



Rhode Island, .')2 ; part played by him 
in settlement of Rhode Island, r.2-54 

Wilmmgton, N. C, Swedish colony near, 
22 ; held by Cornwallis, 228 ; blockade- 
running from. E33 ; capture of, 588. 

Wilmot Proviso, 454. 

Wilson. Henry, elected Vice president, 
642. 

Wilson's Creek. Mo., battle of, 519. 

Winchester, Va , battle of. .577 

Windsor iwin'zur). Conn., settlement, 46. 

Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth 
colony, 36. 

Winthrop, John, governor of Massachu- 
setts bay colony, 40. 

Winthrop, John. Jr., of Connecticut, 
leading man of Connecticut colony, 50; 
sent to England for charter, 50. 

Wisconsin, fomiation of State. 246 ; ad- 
mitted, 4.38 : forest fires in, 6.53. 

Witchcraft, Salem, 43. 

Wolfe. Geu. James, siege of Quebec, 142, 
143 ; death of, 143. 

Working nation, a, 715. 

Wyoming (wi o'ming) Territory, part of, 
taken from Louisiana territory, 301. 
note ; part of the Mexican territory. 
444 ; admitted, 684, note. 

Wyoming Park, N. Y., massacre at, S09. 

Yale College, founded, 65. 
York, Duke of, 33, 102. 110. 118, 117. 
York River, the, 230, 537, .'^43. 
Yorktown, Va.. seized by Comwallis. 
230 ; siege and capture of, 538. 



WALKER'S (F. A.) POLITICAL ECONOMIES. 

Advanced Course. 

Political Economy. By Francis A. Walker, President 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Author of 
" The Wages Question," "Money," " Money, Trade, and In- 
dustry," "Land and its Rent," etc. viii + 537pp. 8vo. (Amer- 
ican Science Series, Advanced Course.) Third Editioti, 
Revised a7id Enlarged. 

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questions of Banking, Foreign Exchanges, Cooperation, 
Trades' Unions, Strikes, Land Nationalization, Bimetallism, 
Taxation, and Protection are taken up." 

In the revised edition about one hundred pages of matter 
have been stricken out and about one hundred and fifty pages 
of new matter have been introduced. The new matter con- 
sists chiefly in (i) a restatement, in a more familiar and con- 
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fuller discussion of the Ricardian doctrine of Rent, of Mr. 
George's proposals regarding the ownership of land, and 
of the economic view of the Knights of Labor; and (3) articles 
on our National Banking System, Socialism, etc. 



Richmond Mayo Smith, Profes- 
sor in Columbia College, IV. Y. : — 
Walker's revised edition seems to 
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Woodrow Wilson, Professor in 
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have found the work particularly 
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book 'I know of as an introduc- 
tion to the most Tnodern point of 
view as to economical questions, 
— to that political economy, so 
recently developed and still so full 
of promise, which essays to under- 
stand the world of actual fact. In 
using President Walker's book in 
the class-room, too, one feels that 
he is leading his class under the 
wing of a first-rate original au- 
thority. 



WALKER'S (F. A.) POLITICAL ECONOMIES.— (Cb«/.) 

Bichard T. Ely, Professor in the 
Johns Hopkins University, Md.: — 
There are few good text-books of 
political economy, but for the 
English-speaking student the writ- 
er would recommend Francis A. 
Walker's Political Economy. 



James F. Colby, Professor in 
Dartmouth College, N. H : — My 
high estimate of theoriginal edition 
as a basis for undergraduate study 
has been expressed by its contin- 
ued use as the only required text 
in my classes. The revised edi- 
tion appears in a more attractive 
form, and its new chapters . . . 
make it a complete and timely 
manual. 

James H. Canfield, Professor in 
the University of Kansas : — The 
freshness, directness, and good 
sense of Walker, combined with 
his peculiarly American way — I 
know of no better expression — of 



treating his theme, make him an 
especial favorite with all my 
workers. 

Professor J. K. Ingram in the En- 
CYCLOP/EDIA Britannica, Ninth 
Edition : — The best brief exposi- 
tion of political economy, substan- 
tially in accordance with Mill's 
treatise, is to be found in Fawcetl's 
Manual. But those who admit in 
part the claims of the new school 
will prefer Mr. and Mrs. Marshall's 
" Economics of Industry." Bet- 
ter in some respects than either 
of these is the "Political Econo- 
my " of the American professor, 
Francis A. Walker. 

F. A. Hodder, Instructor in 
Economics in Cornell University, in 
The Academy : — Since the first 
edition of this work appeared in 
1S83, it has generally been con- 
ceded to be the best systematic 
text-book upon the subject of 
political economy. 



Briefer course. 

Political Economy. By Francis A. Walker, Author of 
" The Wages Question," " Money," " Money, Trade, and 
Industry," "Land and its Rent," etc. viii -1-415 pp. i2mo. 
(American Science Series, Briefer Course.) 



The demand for a briefer manual than the foregoing by 
the same author, for the use of institutions where only a short 
time could be given to the subject, or where a companion to 
lectures was desired, has led to the publication of the present 
volume. The work of abridgment has been effected mainly 
through the excision of illustrative matter, although some 
structural changes have been made, notably in the parts relat- 
ing to distribution and consumption. The amount of matter 
in this book is about one-half that contained in the larger work. 



Alexander Johnston, late ^ Pro- 
fessor in Princeton University, 
N.J.: — President Walker's Polit- 
ical Economy is the only required 
text-book in its subject in Prince- 



ton College. Quite apart from 
my regard for its distinguished 
author and his work in political 
economy, I find special advan- 
tages in his series as you have 



WALKER'S (F. A.) POLITICAL ECOIJOMIES.- (Com.) 

published it. Using the " Briefer 
Course" as a text-book, suited to 
any capacity, I am able at the same 
time to recommend the "Ad- 
vanced Course" to those who are 
better able to use it as a book of 
reference, or more inclined to 
carry their work further. 

George B. Newcomb, Professor in 
the College of the City of Ne7v York: 
— Since the publication of the 
smaller work it has been used in 
my classes, and has proved for 
them a genuine introduction to the 
science of political economy ; the 
author always succeeding in carry- 
ing the student into the heart of 
the issue, even when not carrying 
him fully along with his own con- 
clusions 

C. H. Cooper. Professor in Carle- 
ton College, Minn.: — I use the 
book. Walker's Briefer Course, 
with increasing satisfaction on 
account of its clearness and vigor 
and common sense, though I differ 
with the author in detail. 



F. C. Clark, Instructor in the 
Ann Arbor {Mich.) High School: — 
In method, matter, and make-up it 
is unexcelled as a text-book in 
Political Economy. Furthermore, 
it is a modern book : by this I 
mean it gives the latest and best 
ideas on the great questions of 
economics ; just what the student 
wants. 

The Cambridge XTniversity Re- 
view, England: — Clear, simple, 
concise, yet clarified by copious 
illustration, Mr. Walker's Political 
Economy affords a welcome rest- 
ing-place to students wearied by 
the perusal of bulky volumes deal- 
ing with separate points in the 
science. . . . Though greatly 
abridged from a larger work, care- 
fully condensed, and omitting ex- 
traneous matter, this wonderful 
Political Economy is never 
tedious, and could never weary 
even a reader who was not espe- 
cially interested in the subject 
discussed. 



One of the foregoing volumes is used in nearly one hundred 
colleges, among them the following : 

University of Virginia. 
University of Indiana. 
University of Illinois. 
University of Nebraska. 
University of California. 



Princeton College, N. J. 
Dartmouth College, N. H. 
Amherst College, Mass. 
University of Wisconsin. 
Worcester Institute, Mass. 
Bowdoin College, Me. 
Rutgers College, N. J. 
Wesleyan University, Ct. 
Oberlin College. Ohio. 
Haverford College. Pa. 
Ripon College, Wis. 
Wabash College, Ind. 
Union College, N. Y. 
Svvarthmore College, Pa. 
University of Tennessee. 
College of the City of New York. 
Randolph-Macon College, Va. 
Albion College, Mich. 
Columbia College, N. Y. 



University of North Carolina. 
Ohio State University. 
Syracuse University, N. Y. 
University of Iowa. 
Vassar College, N. Y. 
Hamilton College, N. Y. 
Knox College, 111. 
Trinity College, Ct. 
Columbian University, D. C. 
Hanover College, Ind. 
Madison University, N. Y. 
Mass. Agricultural College. 
Washington University, Mo. 
Adelbert College, O. 



WALKER'S (F. A.) POLITICAL ECONOMIES.— (Ctw/) 

Elementary Course. 

First Lessons in Political Economy. By Francis A. 
Walker, Ph.D., LL.D., President of the Massachusetts in 
stitute of Technology, Author of "The Wages Question, 
" Money." " Land and its Rent," etc. x + 323 pp. i2mo. 
(American Science Series, Elementary Course.) 

This book is addressed to High School and Academy pupils 
fifteen, sixteen, or seventeen years of age. What has been at 
tempted is a clear arrangement of topics ; a simple, direct, and 
forcible presentation of the questions raised ; the avoidance, as 
far as possible, of certain metaphysical distinctions which the 
author has found perplexing; a frequent repetition of cardina' 
doctrines; and especially a liberal use of concrete illustrations, 
drawn from facts of common experience or observation. The 
author has not thought it necessary to make the work childish, 
nor, in adapting the tone of discussion to young readers, to 
avoid words as long as are necessary to fully carry the meaning 
intended. This is no " Primer of Political Economy," but a 
substantial course of study. 

Since the present work is intended for youthful students, and 
is designed quite as much to interest them in the study of the 
subject as to make them proficient in it, the author has not held 
himself strictly to the treatment of political economy as a 
science, to be distinguished from the art of political economy. 
He has allowed himself great freedom in assuming that certain 
results are desirable in themselves and certain others undesir- 
able, and he has sought to show how these may be avoided and 
those attained. Pains have been taken to bring the pupil to 
look at the phenomena of common life, and to read the news- 
papers and magazines with some reference to the economic 
significance of what appears in them. 



Simon N. Patten, Professor in 
the University of Pennsylvania: — 
I want to express my satisfaction 
with the charming manner in 
which the work is done. It is 
rarely that a book has given me 
as much pleasure. . . The new and 
clearer presentation of the laws 
of distribution by which, the cor- 
relation of the shares in distribu- 
tion becomes more promment, is 
to my mind a piece of work not 
surpassed by any other like con- 



tribution to economic literature— 
not even by Mill himself. 

H. S. Cowell, Principal of Gush- 
ing Academy, Mass.: — This book is 
admirably adapted to the needs of 
the High School or Academy stu- 
dent. Its candid and forcible dis- 
cussion of the most recent phases 
of economic problems, its charm- 
ing style, and freedom from am 
biguous and technical phrases 
make it an interesting as weli as 
stimulating book to the young. 



JOHNSTON'S (A.) HISTORIES. 

A History of the United States for Schools. With an In- 
troductory History of the Discovery and English Coloniza- 
tion of North America. With Maps, Plans, Illustrations, and 
Questions. By Alexander Johnston, LL.D., Author of a 
" History of American Politics," Professor in Princeton 
University, xx + 473 pp. i2mo. 

" A history of the Nation, with an introductory sketch of dis- 
covery and colonization, attd not, as so many text books are, a his- 
tory of the colonial period, with an appendix on national develop- 
ment." 

In his preface the author says : " There are already in 
existence books in abundance which tell stories in the man- 
ner attractive to pupils at the most imaginative period of 
life ; and the pupil's mind, if properly directed by the teacher, 
will turn to them naturally and derive more satisfaction and 
instruction from them than can be gained from any school 
history of usable compass. It hardly seems wise for a 
school history to force itself into a hopeless competition in 
a field which has already been so fully pre-empted. History 
is a task and a method of mental discipline; our school 
histories attempt to relieve it as no one attempts to relieve 
grammar or arithmetic, by storj'-telling. The reason generally 
advanced for the transfer of the stirring stories of the past out 
of the reading book or general reading into the school histories 
is that they stimulate the minds of pupils to an emulation of 
the great deeds which are narrated. In isolated cases the 
reason may be valid ; there may have been cases in which the 
mind of the pupil has been thus stimulated with useful effect. 
But the mass of pupils have no opportunity to exhibit any such 
result ; their need is to learn from the history of the past how 
best to perform the simple and homely duties of good citizen- 
ship. 

" The design of this book, then, is to group those events which 
seem likely to shed light on the responsibilities of the citizen 
to the present or future, and to give the student the light in con- 
nection with the event. In this process the effort has been 
made, with caution and with a studied simplicity of language, 
to interest the pupil in the wonderful development of the 
United States and the difficult economic problems which have 
grown out of it. And in every place where it has seemed possi- 
ble, the attention of the pupil has been directed to the peculiar 
circumstances and limitations of the time under consideration, 
and to the idea of growth to be attained by a comparison with 
the present. For much the same reasons, other topics, not 



JOHNSTON'S (A.) HISTORIES.— (CondnueJ.) 
essential to the main subject, such as the tribal institutions of 
the Aborigines, and the Spanish conquests of Mexico and 
Peru, have been left untouched. And, in narrating the wars 
of the United States, while the effort has been made to give 
the pupil a definite idea of the purposes, plans, and results of 
campaigns, it has not seemed best to cumber the narration with 
a catalogue of engagements and commanders, whose very 
names are only a spring of confusion to the mind of the 
pupil." 

Authorities say it is the best book. 



It is officially recommended to 
candidates for admission to 
courses where the subject is re- 
quired in the following institu- 
tions (where they have preparatory 
departments, the recommendation 
takes the practical form of use 
there): 

Harvard University. 

Johns Hopkins University. 

University of Michigan. 

Princeton University. 

Mass. Institute of Technology. 

Bryn Mawr College. 

University of Minnesota. 

University of Pennsylvania. 

Vanderbilt University. 

University of Iowa. 

Ohio State University. 

Oberlin College. 

Lake Forest University. 

Rutgers College. 

Northwestern University (111.). 

Dickinson College, etc. 

A. B. Hart, Assistant Professor 
in Har-jard University : — The 
" History," so far as I have ex- 
amined it, seems decidedly the 
best school history of the United 
States which has appeared. 

R. Hudson, Professor in Univer- 
sity of Michigan : — I regard John- 
ston's " History of the United 
Slates" as the best text-book for 
use in High Schools that has yet 
been published. 



John Fiske, the well-knoxvn 
■writer and lecturer on United 
States History : — Incomparably 
the best short history of the 
United States with which I am 
acquainted. 

J. Macy, Professor in loxra Col- 
lege : — I have examined Prof. 
Johnston's " History of the 
United States," and have used it 
in my classes, and it seems to me, 
on the whole, the most satisfactory 
school history with which I am 
acquainted. 

Charles H. Livermore, Assistant 
Professor in the A/ass. Institute of 
Technology: — After using it for one 
year, I am able to commend it as 
the best text-book of the kind. 

George W. Knight, Professor in 
Ohio Stale University : — Nearly a 
year's use with classes has conclu- 
sively proved to me that my first 
estimate of the book was correct. 
It is, I think, decidedly the best 
book in the field for thorough 
class-work. 

The Nation : — The best school 
history, it seems to us, which has 
yet been presented to the public. 

The Magazine of American His- 
tory: — Among the numerous short 
histories of the United States pre- 
pared for the use of teachers and 
classes in our schools, the one 
before us is destined to hold the 
highest place. 



JOHNSTON'S (A.) HISTORIES.— (C<;«//wW.) 

They give reasons for saying it is the best. 

Moses Coit Tyler, Professor in 
Cornell University, M. Y.: — Its 
great feature — that of subordinat- 
ing our colonial history to our 
national history — is certainly wise 
and beneficial, if not carried too 
far; while its terse but always 
clear language, and the force with 
which it puts forward the essential 
facts in each historic situation, 
make it an effective text-book. 

Woodrow Wilson, Professor in 
Princeton University, N. J. : — Its 
special excellence, in my eyes, 
is its subordination of " drum and 
trumpet" to those questions, con- 
stitutional and social, which have 
given drum and trumpet their oc- 
casional employment. 

James Monroe, Professor in 
Oberlin College, Ohio : — I approve 
of the substitution of important 
facts, political, military, or eco- 
nomic — in other words, of real 
history — for the romantic stories 
that have filled so large a space in 
our school-books. On the whole, 
I know of no school history of the 
United States which includes so 
much that is necessary to know, 
and excludes so much that is not. 

C. W. Pearson, Professor in 
North western University, Evans- 
ton, III.: — Johnston's is one of the 
very few elementary histories 
from which an American boy may 
learn something at least of the 
other side of every great question, 
and see that foreign nations and 
defeated parties acted upon intel- 
ligible motives, and were not, as 
some of the so-called histories 
would lead one to suppose, utterly 
and irredeemably base and stupid. 

R. H. Halsey, Principal of Osh- 
kosh {Wis.) High School: — I have 
looked in vain in any other text- 
book of United States history for 



the clear and simple presentation 
of many principles in the politi- 
cal history of our government 
with which every school-child 
should be familiar; in Prof. John- 
ston's book they are ntroduced so 
naturally, and in such simple and 
appropriate language, that they 
are within the mental grasp of 
any grammar-school pupil of 
average ability. 

The Wisconsin School Journal : — 
We find it not dry and hard, but 
interesting with an interest which 
appeals not to the imagination, 
but to the understanding. Great 
principles pertaining to the cur- 
rency, the tariff, and so on, are 
simply and clearly stated, and 
their practical workings made 
manifest. There is a place for 
the anecdotal and descriptive his- 
tory in primary schools, and we 
should be glad to see it given 
more general prominence there. 
This book, however, belongs to 
higher grades. It will do good 
service if it helps to bring about a 
recognition of the distinction be- 
tween picturesque and rational 
history, and the place of each in 
school. 

The Critic : — We have known 
more than one historian to be 
satisfied, because he was talking 
to youthful minds, with stating 
the cause of the Civil War to have 
been the firing on Fort Sumter, or 
the implied information that the 
South was " mad" because Lincoln 
w^s elected. In Prof. Johnston's 
new method, it must be a very 
dull student who does not see the 
war coming for many years before 
Sumter was fired on. We cannot 
better give our impression of the 
whole book than by drawing at- 
tention to this single feature of it. 



JOHNSTON'S (A.) HISTORIES. 
It satisfies teachers who use it. 



-{Continued.) 



IN FITTING 

D. Collin Wells, Instructor in 
Phillips {AnJover) Academy, Mass.: 
— I am usirjg, with a class of fifty, 
Johnston's History of the United 
States, and consider it an exceed- 
ingly satisfactory text-book for 
preparatory classes. It is clear, 
concise, and yet sufficiently full, 
preserving an admirable symmetry 
to the portion attached to each 
period. 

J. M. Lamberton, Instructor in 
St. Paul's School, N . H. : — I have 
used, and am using in my classes. 
Prof. Johnston's History of the 
United States. I think it a very 
well-proportioned book, clear and 
accurate in statement, fair and 
impartial in the treatment of poli- 
tics, and scholarly in arrangement. 



SCHOOLS. 

H. Y. Fisk, Professor in North- 
western University , Evatiston, III. : 
— We have been using Johnston's 
History of the United States as a 
text-book in the Preparatory De- 
partment at the Northwestern 
University for three years. It 
has been in the hands of different 
teachers, and been well thought 
of as a text-book by them all. 

J. W. Moncrief, Professor in 
Prankliti ColUi^e, Ind. : — We have 
used in our Preparatory Depart- 
ment the History of the United 
States by the late Prof. Johnston 
since its first appearance. It has 
given entire satisfaction. We 
could not think of exchanging it 
for anv other. 



W. H. Lambert, Principal of 
Fall River ( Mass. ) High School : — 
We have used for two years John- 
ston's History of the United States. 
No book in this subject has ever 
given such great satisfaction. It 
is. in my judgment, the ideal 
school history. 

F. C. Clark, Instructor in Ann 
Arbor {Mich.) High School:— I 
have used Johnston's United 
States History in my classes for 
two years, and find it satisfactory 
in every way. The work is not 
over-burdened with dates, nor 
with unimportant events and 
empty sentences. It keeps clear- 
ly in view the successive stages of 
development and progress through 
which our nation has passed; in- 
teresting and inspiring the stu- 
dent, at the same time instructing 
him. 



SCHOOLS. 

[ S. W. Landon, Principal of Bur- 
lington ( / 7.) High School .-—We 
have used in our High School 
during the last three years John- 
ston's History of the United 
Slates, and consider it one of the 
most valuable books upon our 
entire list. After great care in 
examination we adopted it be- 
cause it seemed in all respects 
best adapted to our needs, and 
experience has proved the wisdom 
of the choice. From no book on 
any subject do we get more satis- 
factory results. 

C. T. Lane, Principal of Fort 
Wayne (Ind.) High School:— We 
are using Johnston's History of 
the United States in our Ninth 
Grade. The book is solid, sub- 
stantial, crammed with the most 
valuable information. Our class 
is enthusiastic, and is learning 
what is worth knowing. 



JOHNSTON'S (A.) HISTORIES.— {Coniinued.) 



IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 



Jalia A. King, Teacher in the 
Michigan State Normal School : — 
We have been using Johnston for 
a term now, and are well pleased 
with the results. Our method here 
is the topical one, and we have 
found this book to serve excellent- 
ly well as a foundation. 

A. C. Boyden, Instructor in the 
Massachusetts State Nortnal School, 
Bridgetvater : — We are using John- 
ston s History as a reference-book 
in our classes; it is an excellent 
book, and I cordially recommend 
it wherever I have an opportunity. 

Silas Y. Gillan, Instructor in the 
Wisconsin State Normal School, ' 

It is used in the best schools, 
ing:— 

PRIVATE AND ENDOWED SCHOOLS. 

Phillips(Andover) Academy, Mass. 

Phillips (Exeter) Academy, N. H. 

St. Paul's School, N. H. 

Williston Seminary, Mass. 

Lawrenceville School, N. J. 

Thayer Academy. Mass. 

Stevens School, N. J. 

Vermont Academy. 

Albany Academy, N. Y. 

Cook Academy, N. Y. 

Norfolk Academy, Va. 

Chauncy Hall School, Boston. 

Wall and Mooney's School, Tenn. 

Minneapolis Academy, Minn. 

Friends' School, Providence. 

Belmont School, Cal. 

Dickinson Seminary, Pa. 

Rockford Seminary, 111. 

Mrs. Reed's School, N. Y. City. 

Bryn Mawr School, Baltimore. 

Wheaton Seminary, Mass. 

Bradford Academy, Mass. 

Miss Ireland's School, Boston. 

The Preparatory Departments of 
between thirty and forty West- 
ern Colleges. 



Milwaukee : — I have used John- 
ston's History of the United States 
for several years, and do not know 
a better school-book on that sub- 
ject. The preface is an excellent 
essay on the teaching of History. 
Elvira Y. Speakman, Instructor 
in the Pennsykania State Normal 
School, West Chester: — I have been 
using Johnston's History of the 
United States for four years in 
my advanced grades. After care- 
ful examination of the book, and 
teaching from it (which is the best 
test after all), I can safely say it 
is the best text-book on the sub- 
ject that I know. 

some of which are the follovv- 



HIGH AND NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
Fall River (Mass.) High School. 
Lowell (Mass.) High School. 
Baltimore (Md.) City College. 
Philadelphia (Pa.) Manual Train- 
ing School. 
Ann Arbor (Mich.) High School. 
Detroit (Mich.) High School. 
Appleton (Wis.) High School. 
Burlington (Vt.) High School. 
Denver (Col.) High School. 
St. Joseph (Mo.) High School. 
Erie (Pa.) High School. 
Auburn (N. Y.) High School. 
Ottawa (111.) High School. 
Fort Wayne (Ind.) High School. 
Winona (Minn.) High School. 
Willimantic (Ct.) High School. 
Three Mass. State Normal Schools. 
Michigan State Normal School. 
All Wis. State Normal Schools. 
Connecticut State Normal School. 
New Jersey State Normal School. 
Two Minn. State Normal Schools. 
Iowa State Normal School. 
Kansas State Normal School. 
Three Pa. State Normal Schools- 



JOHNSTON'S (A.) HISTORIES —{Co»/i>iueJ.) 

A Shorter History of the United States. With an Intro- 
ductory Account of the Discovery and English Colonization 
of North America; with Maps, Plans, and References to 
Supplementary Reading. By ALEXANDER JOHNSTON, late 
Professor in Princeton University. 

This little work is adapted to younger pupils and shorter 
courses than the author's " History of the United States" de- 
scribed above. It is not properly an abridgment of that work, 
but rather a re-writing of the subject in which the peculiar 
merits of the original have been preserved. 

History of American Politics. By Alexander JOHNSTON, 
LL.D., Late Professor in Princeton College. Third Edition, 
Revised and Enlarged by Willlam M. Sloane, Ph.D., Pro- 
fessor of History and Political Science in Princeton College, 
xvi + 350 pp. i6mo. (Handbooks for Students and General 
Readers.) 

The book affords a plain, short, unbiassed account of the 
salient facts of the political history of the United States. In 
the course of an orderly narrative, which assumes almost the 
form of annals, important constitutional ;md administrative 
questions are explained, the arguments on both sides rehearsed, 
the origin and history of political parties sketched, and their 
attitude toward these questions indicated. Social and military 
history is touched upon only so far as it has a distinct bearing 
upon politics. 

Aside from indispensable accuracy and lucidity, the most no- 
table quality of the book is the author's acuteness in discerning 
the essential in every movement, and its relation to antecedent 
and consequent, and his almost unrivalled faculty of putting 
himself in each party in turn, and succinctly and fairly stating 
its views and principles. This quality manifests itself unob- 
trusively in the selection and ordering of facts, more than in 
any set philosophizing. 



CHAMPLIN'S (J. D., Jr.) WORKS. 

The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Common Things. By 

John D. Champlin, Jr., late Associate Editor of "The 

American Cyclopaedia." IVt'th Nujnerous Illustrations, vi 

+ 690 pp. 8vo. $2.50. 
The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Persons and Places. 

By John D. Champlin, Jr., late Associate Editor of "The 

American Cyclopaedia." With Ntanerotts Illustrations. 

Fifth Edition, Revised, vi + 936 pp. 8vo. Uniform with 

the above. $2.50. 

The volumes are sold separately. 

The first volume treats in simple language, aided by pictorial 
illustrations, of things in nature, science, and the arts which are 
apt to awaken a child's curiosity, or to be referred to in his 
reading. Special attention has been given to phenomena which 
most immediately affect human happiness — such as air, light, 
heat, and electricity, — to those parts of the human body 
whose health is very obviously influenced by our habits, to 
manufactured articles in common use, and to familiar and curi- 
ous animals. 

The second volume, devoted to noted persons and places, 
both real and fabulous, supplements the first volume, and with 
it covers tiie usual range of cyclopaedic knowledge. In select- 
ing illustrations, care has been taken to avoid those common 
in the ordinary geographies and histories; and especial promi- 
nence has been given to some notable restorations of classic 
scenes and famous buildings. An attempt has been made to 
bring the pronunciation of proper names within the compre- 
hension of young folks by using the simple letters of the alphabet 
without diacritical marks. A novel feature is the comparative 
estimates of the areas and populations of countries and cities, 
to enable the young reader to form an idea of size of distant 
places by giving him some well-known standard at home. 

The arrangement of topics in both volumes is the same as in 
cyclopaedias Tor adults, to which these volumes are but stepping- 
stones, as it is deemed of importance to early accustom the 
child to the forms and methods which experience has shown 
to be the best. 

The works are upon the State Library Lists for public schools 
in Wisconsin and Minnesota. 



A Beport of the Hegents of the 
New York University . — ' ' The 
Young Folks' Cyclopaedia" will 
prove attractive and valuable to the 
younger class of pupils, who would 
be repelled by a larger cyclopaedia. 



A Report of the Connecticut 
State Board of Education :—" The 
Young Folks' Cyclopaedia" by John 
D. Champlin, Jr. , two volumes, 
should be in every Juvnile Li- 
brary. -^ 



CHAMPLIN'S (J. D.. Jr.) WORKS.— (Continued.) 

The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports. By 

John D. Champlin, Jr., and Arthur E. Bostwick. iv + 
830 pp. 8vo. $2.50. 

This book, forming a third volume of the well-known 
'Young Folks' Cyclopaedia" series, is intended to be a com- 
pendium of all kinds of recreations, including indoor and out- 
door games, athletic sports, simple chem.ical and mechanical 
amusements, and every similar thing that can interest a wide- 
awake boy or girl. While the "padding" characteristic of 
too many such works has been rigorously excluded, the 
endeavor has been to make the explanations full enough for 
simplicity and clearness. Where standard rules are accessible, 
they have been given word for word, thus making the book val- 
uable as a work of reference for adults in case of dispute. 
Other features are the intrf)duction of a brief historical sketch 
at the end of each article, the description of some foreign varie- 
ties of many of the games, and the attempt at a thorough sys- 
tem of etymology and derivation of all technical terms, as in 
the preceding volumes of the series. 

The book therefore, besides its cycloptcdic style and arrange- 
ment, which is novel in a work of this kind, combines advan- 
tages never before united in a single volume, and will be of use 
to children and youth of all ages from the nursery to the base- 
ball field or the chess-board. Such articles as require it have 
been revised by competent experts, and it is believed that no 
fault can be found with the work on the score of accuracy. 

Many of the modern American publications on sports and 
games, especially those that aim at completeness, are merely 
reprints of English books, and in a measure unsuited for 
American use. This work, on the contrary, has been written 
from the American standpoint, even such a game as Cricket 
being treated as it is played in this country. 

While the illustration is very full, it is believed that no pic- 
ture has been inserted for its own sake, or otherwise than as an 
aid to the proper understanding of the text. 

The Young Folks' Catechism of Common Things. By 

John D. Champlin, Jr. Ne^v Edition, Rmised. iv -1- 289 pp. 

i6mo. 60 cents. 

The Young Folks' Astronomy By John D. Champlin, 

Jr. Illustrated, vi 4- 236 pp. i6mo. 60 cents. 



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